Unit 4 Study Guide_created by APES student

Unit 4: Earth Systems and Resources Study Guide

4.1 Plate Boundaries

• Convergent Boundaries

  • Result in the formation of mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

  • Example: The Himalayas are formed by the collision of two continental plates.

• Divergent Boundaries

  • Lead to seafloor spreading, rift valleys, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

  • Example: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where new oceanic crust is formed.

• Transform Boundaries

  • Primarily result in earthquakes due to sliding plates.

  • Example: San Andreas Fault in California.

• Earthquake Mechanics

  • Occurs when stress on a fault line surpasses its strength, releasing stored energy.

  • Map features include hotspots, faults, and volcano locations.

4.2 Soil Formation

• Parent Material

  • Undergoes weathering, transporting, and deposition to form soils.

• Soil Horizons

  • Constituted by layers based on material composition:

    • O Horizon: Organic material from decomposing organisms.

    • A Horizon (Topsoil): Mature humus, critical for plant growth.

    • B Horizon (Subsoil): Accumulates minerals and nutrients.

    • C Horizon: Comprised of partially weathered rock.

• Erosion:

  • Soils can be eroded by wind and water.

  • Protection of soil is crucial to maintain water quality as it filters water.

4.3 Soil Characteristics and Retention

• Water Retention (Porosity)

  • Varies among different soil types, affecting agricultural productivity.

• Soil Types

  • Sandy soils: Higher permeability.

  • Clay soils: Lower permeability.

• Testing Soil

  • Methods to analyze chemical, physical, and biological properties for agricultural effectiveness.

4.4 Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

• Major Gases:

  • 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen

  • Other trace gases present in smaller amounts.

• Atmospheric Layers:

  • Troposphere: Weather occurs here; contains greenhouse gases.

  • Stratosphere: Includes the ozone layer; protects from UV radiation.

  • Mesosphere: Middle layer where meteors burn up.

  • Thermosphere: Characterized by high temperatures; Aurora Borealis occurs here.

  • Exosphere: Outermost layer where the atmosphere transitions to outer space.

4.5 Atmospheric Circulation (Winds)

• Global Wind Patterns:

  • Result from differences in solar radiation and the Coriolis effect.

• Convection Cells:

  • Move warm air upward and cooler air downward, creating circular patterns.

4.6 Watersheds

• Definition:

  • Area of land draining precipitation to a common body of water such as a river, lake, or ocean.

4.7 Solar Energy and Seasons

• Solar Insolation:

  • Varies by latitude and altitude, impacting temperature and daylight hours.

• Sun Angle and Seasonality:

  • The equator receives the most sunlight; seasonal changes influence day length.

4.8 Geography's Impact on Weather and Climate

• Influence of Geography:

  • Geographic features (e.g., mountains, oceans) affect local climates.

  • A rainshadow effect occurs where one side of a mountain receives heavy rain and the other side is dry.

4.9 El Niño and La Niña Events

• El Niño:

  • Characterized by warmer ocean surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific, altering rainfall patterns worldwide.

• Upwelling:

  • Process where deep, nutrient-rich cold water rises; blocked during El Niño events

  • Affects marine ecosystems and local weather patterns.