8.6-8.8

Jackie Robinson – The first African American to play Major League Baseball in the modern era, breaking the color barrier in 1947 with the Brooklyn Dodgers.

Harry S. Truman – The 33rd U.S. president who, in 1948, issued Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the military and supported civil rights initiatives.

Committee on Civil Rights – A group established by Truman in 1946 to investigate racial discrimination and recommend federal policies to address civil rights issues.

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) – A civil rights organization that fought legal battles against segregation and discrimination, including Brown v. Board of Education.

Thurgood Marshall – NAACP lawyer who argued Brown v. Board of Education and later became the first African American Supreme Court Justice.

Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (1954) – Landmark Supreme Court case that ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Earl Warren – Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court who led the Court in many progressive civil rights decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education.

Southern Manifesto (1956) – A statement signed by Southern lawmakers opposing the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board, advocating resistance to desegregation.

Desegregation – The process of ending racial segregation in public places, especially schools.

Little Rock (1957) – Refers to the integration crisis at Little Rock Central High School, where nine African American students (Little Rock Nine) faced violent opposition, leading President Eisenhower to send federal troops for protection.

Rosa Parks – Civil rights activist who refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Martin Luther King Jr. – A civil rights leader who promoted nonviolent resistance to racial injustice, delivering the famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

Nonviolent movement – A strategy used by civil rights activists involving peaceful protests, civil disobedience, and legal challenges.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56) – A year-long protest against segregated buses in Montgomery, Alabama, sparked by Rosa Parks’ arrest, leading to the desegregation of buses.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) – An organization founded by MLK Jr. and other leaders to coordinate civil rights activism and nonviolent protest.

Sit-in movement – A form of protest where activists sat at segregated lunch counters, demanding equal service; first used effectively in Greensboro, North Carolina (1960).

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) – A youth-led civil rights organization that participated in sit-ins, Freedom Rides, and voter registration efforts.

Civil Rights Commission – A federal commission established in 1957 to investigate racial discrimination and civil rights violations.

Decolonization – The process by which former colonies gained independence from European imperial powers, especially after World War II.

Third World – Term used during the Cold War to describe developing nations that were not aligned with either the U.S. (First World) or the Soviet Union (Second World).

Covert action – Secret operations conducted by the CIA and other agencies to influence foreign governments, often to prevent communist expansion.

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) – U.S. government agency responsible for intelligence gathering and covert operations abroad.

Iran (1953 coup) – The CIA and British intelligence helped overthrow Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh to maintain Western control over Iran’s oil resources.

Suez Crisis (1956) – A conflict in which Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading Britain, France, and Israel to intervene; the U.S. opposed their intervention, marking a shift in global power.

Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) – U.S. policy stating that America would provide military and economic aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – A cartel of oil-producing nations that regulates oil prices and production, significantly influencing global economics.

Yom Kippur (October) War (1973) – A conflict in which Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel; the U.S. and Soviet Union became indirectly involved.

Oil embargo (1973-74) – OPEC cut oil exports to the U.S. and other Western nations in response to support for Israel, leading to an energy crisis.

Camp David Accords (1978) – Peace agreement brokered by President Carter between Egypt and Israel, leading to Egypt recognizing Israel.

Peace Corps – A program established by President Kennedy in 1961 to send American volunteers to developing nations to promote education and infrastructure.

Alliance for Progress – A U.S. initiative under JFK to improve economic conditions in Latin America and prevent communist influence.

Ngo Dinh Diem – U.S.-backed leader of South Vietnam, unpopular for his oppressive rule and assassinated in a 1963 coup.

Domino theory – The belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow, justifying U.S. intervention in Vietnam.

John Foster Dulles – Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, known for his aggressive anti-communist policies, including "massive retaliation."

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) – A Cold War alliance aimed at preventing communist expansion in Southeast Asia.

Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964) – Authorized President Johnson to use military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war.

General William Westmoreland – Commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam who advocated for increased military presence.

Credibility gap – The growing public distrust in government statements, especially regarding the Vietnam War.

Hawks – People who supported the Vietnam War and wanted increased military action.

Doves – Opponents of the Vietnam War who called for de-escalation and peace negotiations.

Tet Offensive (1968) – A major coordinated attack by North Vietnamese forces that shocked Americans and turned public opinion against the war.

Robert F. Kennedy – Senator and presidential candidate assassinated in 1968 after advocating for civil rights and ending the Vietnam War.

George Wallace – Segregationist Alabama governor who ran for president in 1968, appealing to white backlash against civil rights.

Richard Nixon – U.S. president (1969-74) who implemented Vietnamization and later resigned due to the Watergate scandal.

Democratic Convention in Chicago (1968) – A violent clash between anti-war protesters and police, symbolizing political turmoil.

Hubert Humphrey – Vice President under Johnson and Democratic presidential nominee in 1968, losing to Nixon.

White backlash – Negative reaction from some white Americans against civil rights policies and racial integration.

Henry Kissinger – Nixon’s National Security Advisor and Secretary of State, key figure in Vietnam negotiations.

Vietnamization – Nixon’s policy of gradually withdrawing U.S. troops and transferring war efforts to South Vietnam.

Nixon Doctrine – Policy stating the U.S. would provide aid to allies but avoid direct military intervention.

Kent State (1970) – A shooting where National Guardsmen killed four students protesting the Vietnam War.

My Lai Massacre (1968) – A U.S. military atrocity in which soldiers killed hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians.

Pentagon Papers – Leaked government documents revealing deception about U.S. involvement in Vietnam.

Paris Accords (1973) – Peace agreement leading to U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.

War Powers Act (1973) – Law limiting the president’s ability to send troops into combat without congressional approval.