sadness

Psychopathology

• Positive v negative schizophrenic symptoms

  • positive=> behaviors that are present that are normally absent (psychosis, delusions, hallucination)

  • negative=> lack of behaviors that are normally present (lack of emotion, lack of facial expression, anhedonia/lack of pleasure

• One main gene associated with schizophrenia

  • Mutant DISC1

• Heritability chance bt identical twins and fraternal twins/siblings

  • Identical = 50%

  • Fraternal = 17%

• Association between schizophrenia and ventricles in the brain

  • (1) Enlargement of ventricles = (2) reduction of brain tissue = (3) more affected by schizophrenia and more susceptible to antipsychotic drugs (aka more effective the antipsychotic drug)

• Association between schizo and metabolism

  • Hypofrontality hypothesis => frontal lobes are underactive = low blood flow

  • Low act=ivity = lower blood flow

• Effects of chlorpromazine (first generation antipsychotic) Target dopamine or serotonin?

  • Dopamine receptors

• Second generation antipsychotic => atypical antipsychotics

  • Effect on what receptor (dopamine or serotonin) => serotonin receptors

• Which antidepressant drug has an immediate effect?

  • Ketamine and psychedelic drugs

• What does BPD (bipolar) have in common with schizophrenia?

  • Share half of their predictive genetic variants

• Increased or decreased brain metabolism during mania?

  •  Increased brain metabolism

• Effect of benzodiazepine in the treatment for PTSD?

  • Bind to GABA(a) receptors and enhancers GABA’s inhibitory actions

  • What effect on the body (generally)? => block emotional stress on the body

• Increased or decreased level of cortisol in relation to PTSD and HPA axis? (blunted HPA response)

  • Decreased

• Which brain region is decreased in PTSD patients?

  • Smaller hippocampus

• What does haloperidol do? D2R agonist or antagonist? (Tourette’s syndrome)

  • D2 receptor antagonist 

• Potential surgery for OCD?

  • Frontal lobotomy

  • Cingulotomy

  • Know the difference => Which is more appropriate to treat OCD (cingulotomy)

Learning and memory

• Anterograde v retrograde amnesia

  • Anterograde => inability to form memories after onset of disorder

  • Retrograde => loss of memories formed before onset of amnesia

  • HM (old memories in tact) vs Korsakoff’s (who had anterograde v retrograde amnesia)

    • HM =>anterograde

    • Korsakoff’s syndrome => retrograde

• Brain region for learning declarative memories

  • Medial temporal lobe memory system

  • Parahippocampal gyrus

    • Hippocampus

    • Perirhinal cortex

    • Entorhinal cortex

• Patient NA had a brain deficit in what regions

  • Dorsomedial thalamus

  • Mammillary body

• Which of the following memories is responsible for autobiographical memory? Semantic (general declarative) or episodic (detailed autobiographical)

  • Episodic

• reduced/changed processing due to prior exposure? (One example of scenario where there is reduced/changed processing of event due to prior exposure)

  • Priming

• Repeated stimulation of poking at sipon (sea slug gills) what happens to neurotransmitters (increase or decrease neurotransmission?

  • Decreased neurotransmission

• Reinforcement v punishment (operant conditioning) and positive v negative (+ combination)

  • Reinforcement => Increases likelihood of a behavior occurring

  • Punishment => decreases likelihood of behavior occurring

  • Positive => add smth

  • Negative => remove smth

  • positive/negative reinforcement/punishment (combining above two points)

    • Positive reinforcement => encouraging behavior that adding a reward

    • Negative reinforcement => encouraging behavior by removing smth (ie putting on seatbelt to stop beeping sound)

• Brain region responsible for learning skills? Hippocampus or basal ganglia?

  • Basal ganglia

• When an animal is moving towards a particular location, which cell is activated and which brain region activate the cell?

  • Head direction cells, place cell, grid cells, boundary cells?

  • Place cells => hippocampus

• What brain brain for head direction cells? For grid cells?

  • Head direction => presubiculum

  • Grid cells => medial entorhinal cortex

• What is the briefest recollection of sensory impression called?

  • Sensory buffer

• What are the three learning processes

  • Encoding

  • Consolidation

  • Retrieval

• Which brain region is needed for long term memory storage?

  • Medial temporal lobe, neocortex

• Animals housed with enrichment results in what changes to the brain?

  • Heavier, thicker cortex

  • Larger cortical synapses

  • More dendritic branches and spines on cortical neurons

• Enrichment => increase activity of which neuron?

  • cholinergic neurons
    
    

Attention

• Early v late selection (attentional bottleneck)

  • Early selection => filtering occurs at the sensory level 

  • Late selection => filtering occurs at the cognitive/cortical level

• Method for measuring brain activity during task => measures what (temporal or spatial resolution?)

  • EEG = method

  • measures temporal resolution

• Failure to consciously perceive unattended stimuli is called what?

  • Inattentional blindness

• Symbolic cueing tasks test what? And what do the results indicate? Would responding to invalid or valid cues have an increased reaction time?

  • Tests …

  • Voluntary attention (endogenous)

  • Results: valid = decreased reaction time, invalid = increased

• A search based on two or more features that together distinguish the target?

  • Conjunction search

• Which brain region of the subcortical system is responsible for stimuli filtering?

  • Pulvinar 

• Which brain region is responsible for voluntary attention (human)? (dorsal frontoparietal network)

  • Lateral intraparietal area (LIP; monkey) or intraparietal sulcus (IPS; human)

• Name of system that guides voluntary attention?

  • Dorsal frontoparietal network

• ADHD brain reduction or enlargement? Which brain region does it affect

  • Reduction 

  • Gray and white matter overall, cerebellum volume, frontal lobes