Learning in Introductory Psychology

Introductory Psychology: Learning

General Concepts of Learning

• Learning Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.
• Key Terms/Concepts:
  • Reflexes: A simple, automatic response to a stimulus.
  • Instincts: Innate behaviors that are triggered by specific stimuli.
  • Associations: Linking two stimuli, or a stimulus and a response.
  • Conditioning: The process of learning associations between stimuli and responses.

Classical Conditioning

• Overview: Developed by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning involves creating associations between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
• Key Concepts:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned response to the UCS (e.g., salivation).
  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially elicits no response (e.g., a bell).
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, elicits a conditioned response (e.g., bell after association with food).
  • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Classic Conditioning Example - Pavlov's Experiment

1. Before Conditioning:

   • UCS: Food
   • UCR: Salivation
   • NS: Bell (no response)

2. During Conditioning:

   • NS + UCS = UCR
   • Bell + Food = Salivation

3. After Conditioning:

   • CS: Bell
   • CR: Salivation

Related Concepts

• Stimulus Contiguity: The NS and UCS must occur close together in time for conditioning to take place.
• Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.
• Extinction: The reduction of a CR when the CS is presented without the UCS.
• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period.
• Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.
• Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between similar stimuli.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Phobias: Classically conditioned fears derived from associating certain stimuli with negative experiences.
• Evaluative Conditioning: Changing one's liking toward a stimulus via the association with positive or negative stimuli.
• Substance Abuse: Classical conditioning can influence drug cravings and tolerance.

Operant Conditioning

• Definition: A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
• Key Concepts:
  • Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, whereas behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
• Reinforcement:
  • Positive Reinforcement: Increasing a behavior by presenting a favorable outcome.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.
  • Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior every time it occurs.
• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, which can lead to greater resistance to extinction.
  • Types include:
  • Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses.
  • Variable Ratio: Reward after a random number of responses.
  • Fixed Interval: Reward after a set amount of time.
  • Variable Interval: Reward after a random amount of time.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

• Observational Learning: Learning by observing others; includes concepts like:
  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Internal vs. external stimuli motivating behavior.
  • Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.
  • Bobo Doll Experiment: Demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults.

Conclusion

• Understanding both classical and operant conditioning provides a comprehensive view of the learning process in psychology, highlighting the role of associations, reinforcement, and environment in shaping behavior.