exam final

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Gametogenesis & Spermatogenesis

Q: What are the basic, shared steps of gametogenesis?

A: Meiosis, differentiation, and maturation of gametes.

Q: When does spermatogenesis begin?

A: From puberty onward.

Q: What is the duration of the spermatogenic cycle?

A: Approximately 74 days.

Q: How many generations of germ cells are developing concurrently?

A: Approximately 5 cohorts of generations.

Q: How many sperm does the entire testis produce?

A: About 25,000 sperm/min or 36,000,000 sperm/day.

Q: What is unique about spermatozoa?

A: They are the only self-propelled, swimming cells of the human body.

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Oogenesis

Q: When does oogenesis begin and how does it proceed?

A: Begins during embryogenesis; continues at puberty.

Q: What is the structure of an oocyte nucleus during oogenesis?

A: Haploid nucleus with very little cytoplasm.

Q: When does the secondary meiotic division occur?

A: Only when a male gamete is present.

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Male Reproductive Tract: Testis & Tubules

Q: What surrounds each testis?

A: Tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea.

Q: How are the testes organized internally?

A: Tunica albuginea projects internally to divide the testis into 200–300 distinct tubules, each containing 1–4 seminiferous tubules.

Q: What forms the seminiferous tubules?

A: Interconnected Sertoli cells.

Q: Functions of Sertoli cells?

A:

• Direct germ cell development

• Scavenge debris/damaged cells

• Produce seminiferous fluid

• FSH-responsive

• Produce inhibin

• Produce androgen-binding protein (ABP)

Q: Where are Leydig cells located and what do they produce?

A: Outside the seminiferous tubules; produce androgens.

Q: What is the path of developing germ cells in the seminiferous tubules?

A: Travel toward the lumen, with tight junction assembly and re-assembly.

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Male Reproductive Tract: Epididymis to Urethra

Q: What is the epididymis and where is it located?

A: A long, thin, convoluted single duct; lies against the testis and is coiled down to 1/2000th of its actual size.

Q: Functions of the epididymis?

A:

• Maintains tight junctions

• Delivers sperm to ductus deferens

• Promotes sperm fertilizing capacity

Q: What is the ductus deferens and where does it travel?

A: Structural continuation of the epididymis; travels within the spermatic cord until the pelvic cavity.

Q: What happens before the ductus deferens joins with the seminal vesicle?

A: It enlarges to form its ampulla.

Q: What are the three tissue layers of the ductus deferens?

A: Outer adventitia, middle muscularis, inner mucosa.

Q: What do the paired ejaculatory ducts do?

A: Connect the ductus deferens to urethra and mix sperm cells with seminal plasma.

Q: What are the three parts of the male urethra?

A: Prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra.

Q: What is the function of the male urethra?

A: Conducts semen out of the male reproductive tract during ejaculation.

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Penile Anatomy & Erection

Q: What are the erectile bodies of the penis?

A: Paired corpora cavernosa and a single corpus spongiosum.

Q: How does blood enter the corpora cavernosa?

A: Through the cavernosal artery.

Q: What is the primary function of the corpus spongiosum?

A: Ensures the urethra remains a functional ejaculatory pathway during erection.

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Male Accessory Sex Glands

Q: How do the seminal vesicles connect to the reproductive tract?

A: Each excretory duct joins with the ampulla of ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.

Q: What is the structure of the seminal vesicle lumen?

A: Highly-convoluted irregular mucosa to increase surface area.

Q: What surrounds the seminal vesicle lumen?

A: Two layers of smooth muscle that squeeze products out during ejaculation.

Q: What is the prostate gland?

A: The largest human accessory sex gland.

Q: Where do the lobules of the prostate open into?

A: The prostatic urethra.

Q: What percentage of seminal plasma is produced by the prostate gland?

A: Approximately 30%.

Q: What factors does the prostate secrete to promote sperm function?

A: Citric acid, PSAP, zinc, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), hCAP-18.

Q: What is the bulbourethral gland and its function?

A: 2 cm-long ducts that join with the spongy urethra; produce pre-ejaculate.

Q: What is the composition and role of pre-ejaculate?

A: Clear, alkaline fluid made of lubricating proteins and neutralizing mucins; ~5% of total ejaculate.

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Female Reproductive Anatomy: Ovaries & Follicles

Q: Where are the ovaries positioned and anchored?

A: On either side of the uterus, anchored by the mesovarium.

Q: Where do ovarian vessels and nerves pass through?

A: The hilum.

Q: What does the ovarian cortex contain?

A: Dense connective tissue with thousands of ovarian follicles and developing germ cells.

Q: What is in the ovarian medulla?

A: Areolar connective tissue with arteries, veins, nerves, and lymphatics.

Q: What are the roles of theca and granulosa cells?

A:

• Theca cells: convert cholesterol into androgens.

• Granulosa cells: maintain and mature oocytes; convert androgens into estrogen.

Q: What happens to the oocyte during tertiary follicle development?

A: It and surrounding granulosa cells are displaced to one side of the antrum.

Q: What do the cumulus oophorus and corona radiata do?

A: Specialized granulosa cells that later help in oocyte protection and release.

Q: What forms the corpus luteum?

A: Granulosa and thecal cells after ovulation.

Q: What happens to the corpus luteum if no pregnancy occurs?

A: Degenerates into corpus albicans, which is later resorbed.

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Female Reproductive Anatomy: Uterine Ducts & Uterus

Q: What are the 4 regions of the uterine (fallopian) ducts?

A:

1. Infundibulum (with fimbriae)

2. Ampulla (site of fertilization)

3. Isthmus (1/3 of length)

4. Intramural segment (enters uterine cavity)

Q: What are the layers of the uterine ducts?

A:

• Serosa (outer)

• Two smooth muscle layers (middle)

• Ciliated mucosa (inner)

Q: What does the uterine duct mucosa produce?

A: Tubular fluid that promotes gamete/zygote survival and capacitation.

Q: What are the 4 regions of the uterus?

A: Fundus, body, isthmus, cervix.

Q: What are the functions of the uterus?

A: Receives, retains, and nourishes the fetus.

Q: What are the 3 layers of the uterus?

A:

• Perimetrium (outer serosa)

• Myometrium (3 layers of smooth muscle)

• Endometrium (implantation site)

Q: What are the two layers of the endometrium?

A:

• Basal layer: permanent; contains arteries and uterine glands.

• Functional layer: hormone-responsive; grows and sheds during menses.

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Cervix & Vagina

Q: What is the cervix and what does it do?

A: Dome-like structure that projects into the vagina; produces mucus that slows sperm and microorganisms.

Q: What is the vaginal structure and function?

A:

• Functions: copulatory organ, menstruation passage, birth canal.

• Layers: outer adventitia, middle muscularis, inner mucosa.

• Home to non-pathogenic microorganisms due to warm, moist environment.

TERM: Capacitation

DEFINITION: Last step maturation process required for fertilization.

TERM: Steps of sperm capacitation

DEFINITION: 1. Insemination, 2. Initial capacitation, 3. Sperm reservoir, 4. Hyperactivation, 5. Sperm penetrates cumulus mass, 6. Zona penetration.

TERM: Fertilization definition

DEFINITION: Fusion of a sperm and an oocyte.

TERM: Zona pellucida (ZP)

DEFINITION: Species-specific barrier surrounding the oocyte.

TERM: Acrosome reaction

DEFINITION: Rupture of acrosome and release of proteases to digest ZP.

TERM: Role of hyperactive sperm

DEFINITION: Penetrate into the perivitelline space (PVS).

TERM: Sperm docking site on oocyte

DEFINITION: Oocyte microvilli, excluding area overlying pronucleus.

TERM: Egg activation trigger

DEFINITION: PLCz (sperm protein) triggers Ca²⁺ release from oocyte ER.

TERM: Cortical reaction

DEFINITION: Cortical granules released into PVS to block polyspermy.

TERM: Function of cortical reaction

DEFINITION: Creates a new barrier to prevent additional sperm fusion.

TERM: Consequence of fertilization

DEFINITION: Fusion of pronuclei and formation of diploid zygote.

TERM: Second meiotic division

DEFINITION: Occurs in oocyte after activation; polar body is extruded.

TERM: Sperm nucleus reprogramming

DEFINITION: Sperm DNA packaged with maternal histones; maternal mitochondria preserved.

TERM: Four stages of early embryogenesis

DEFINITION: Cleavage, compaction, blastocyst formation, hatching.

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Implantation & Placenta

TERM: Apposition (implantation step 1)

DEFINITION: Stromal edema brings blastocyst near uterine wall.

TERM: Attachment (implantation step 2)

DEFINITION: Blastocyst inner cell mass orients toward endometrium; trophoblast layers begin forming.

TERM: Penetration (implantation step 3)

DEFINITION: Blastocyst burrows into stroma and separates from maternal tissue.

TERM: Structure of placenta

DEFINITION: Chimeric organ made of maternal and embryonic tissue; contains cotyledons.

TERM: Functions of placenta

DEFINITION: Material exchange organ and endocrine organ (produces pregnancy hormones).

TERM: Amnion, chorion, and placenta

DEFINITION: Extra-embryonic structures that support development.

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Pregnancy Complications

TERM: Ectopic pregnancy

DEFINITION: Embryo implants outside uterus; caused by blocked ovum passage.

TERM: Placenta previa

DEFINITION: Placenta implants near/over cervix; risks spontaneous abortion or preterm birth.

TERM: Preeclampsia

DEFINITION: Sudden pregnancy-induced hypertension.

TERM: Dystocia

DEFINITION: Difficult labor due to fetal position or narrow vaginal canal; may require C-section.

TERM: Physiologically immature baby

DEFINITION: Weighs less than 2,500 g; high risk at birth.

TERM: Placenta percreta

DEFINITION: Placenta grows through the uterine wall.

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Hormones of Pregnancy

TERM: hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

DEFINITION: Produced by chorion; detectable ~10 days after ovulation.

TERM: Estrogen in pregnancy

DEFINITION: Promotes uterine contraction and parturition.

TERM: Progesterone in pregnancy

DEFINITION: Prevents uterine contractions.

TERM: Placental lactogen (PL)

DEFINITION: Shifts fuel to fetus; has anti-insulin properties.

TERM: Prolactin (PRL)

DEFINITION: Promotes maternal energy use during illness or stress; from placenta & anterior pituitary.

TERM: Relaxin

DEFINITION: Regulates osmoregulation and cardiovascular changes.

TERM: CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone)

DEFINITION: Increases DHEA for estrogen synthesis; signal for parturition.

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Labor & Lactation

TERM: Cervical effacement and dilation

DEFINITION: First stage of labor; includes effacement contractions and cervix widening.

TERM: Fetal and placental expulsion

DEFINITION: Second and third stages of labor, respectively.

TERM: Colostrum

DEFINITION: Early milk; watery, high-protein fluid made in first days postpartum.

TERM: Milk production & release

DEFINITION: Stimulated by prolactin and oxytocin, respectively.

TERM: Main stimulus for prolactin after birth

DEFINITION: Suckling.

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Postpartum Changes

TERM: Acute postpartum changes

DEFINITION: HR and BP slightly decrease; temperature slightly elevated (within 24 hrs).

TERM: Early postpartum changes

DEFINITION: Weight loss, breast enlargement, colostrum production, vaginal discharge (lochia).

TERM: Late postpartum changes

DEFINITION: Breast milk increases; menstruation returns (4–5 months if breastfeeding, 6–8 weeks if not).

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Endocrine Control & Menstrual Cycle

TERM: Hormones controlling gametogenesis

DEFINITION: GnRH, LH, FSH (hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis).

TERM: GnRH function

DEFINITION: Stimulates release of LH and FSH from anterior pituitary.

TERM: Follicular phase

DEFINITION: Dominated by estrogen; follicle grows in preparation for ovulation.

TERM: Luteal phase

DEFINITION: Presence of corpus luteum; progesterone dominates.

TERM: Early follicular phase hormones

DEFINITION: Estrogen low, FSH rises, then inhibited by inhibin; estrogen begins to increase.

TERM: Mid-follicular phase hormones

DEFINITION: One follicle remains; estrogen rises; small LH surge.

TERM: Late follicular phase and LH surge

DEFINITION: Estrogen peaks → positive feedback → LH surge → ovulation → corpus luteum forms.

TERM: Corpus luteum hormones

DEFINITION: Produces progesterone and estrogen; regresses without pregnancy.

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Inheritance & Contraception

TERM: Mendelian inheritance

DEFINITION: Dominant gene causes a trait; recessive is masked unless inherited from both parents.

TERM: Incomplete dominance

DEFINITION: Blended phenotype when two alleles are inherited.

TERM: Co-dominance

DEFINITION: Both alleles expressed equally (e.g., blood type AB).

TERM: Sex-linked inheritance

DEFINITION: Trait linked to X or Y chromosome; Y-linked seen only in males.

TERM: Color blindness

DEFINITION: Example of an X-linked recessive trait.

TERM: STD (Sexually Transmitted Disease)

DEFINITION: Infections spread through sexual contact.

TERM: Contraceptive effectiveness

DEFINITION: Measured by % of women with unintended pregnancy in 1 year of typical use.