exam final
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Gametogenesis & Spermatogenesis
Q: What are the basic, shared steps of gametogenesis?
A: Meiosis, differentiation, and maturation of gametes.
Q: When does spermatogenesis begin?
A: From puberty onward.
Q: What is the duration of the spermatogenic cycle?
A: Approximately 74 days.
Q: How many generations of germ cells are developing concurrently?
A: Approximately 5 cohorts of generations.
Q: How many sperm does the entire testis produce?
A: About 25,000 sperm/min or 36,000,000 sperm/day.
Q: What is unique about spermatozoa?
A: They are the only self-propelled, swimming cells of the human body.
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Oogenesis
Q: When does oogenesis begin and how does it proceed?
A: Begins during embryogenesis; continues at puberty.
Q: What is the structure of an oocyte nucleus during oogenesis?
A: Haploid nucleus with very little cytoplasm.
Q: When does the secondary meiotic division occur?
A: Only when a male gamete is present.
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Male Reproductive Tract: Testis & Tubules
Q: What surrounds each testis?
A: Tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea.
Q: How are the testes organized internally?
A: Tunica albuginea projects internally to divide the testis into 200โ300 distinct tubules, each containing 1โ4 seminiferous tubules.
Q: What forms the seminiferous tubules?
A: Interconnected Sertoli cells.
Q: Functions of Sertoli cells?
A:
Direct germ cell development
Scavenge debris/damaged cells
Produce seminiferous fluid
FSH-responsive
Produce inhibin
Produce androgen-binding protein (ABP)
Q: Where are Leydig cells located and what do they produce?
A: Outside the seminiferous tubules; produce androgens.
Q: What is the path of developing germ cells in the seminiferous tubules?
A: Travel toward the lumen, with tight junction assembly and re-assembly.
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Male Reproductive Tract: Epididymis to Urethra
Q: What is the epididymis and where is it located?
A: A long, thin, convoluted single duct; lies against the testis and is coiled down to 1/2000th of its actual size.
Q: Functions of the epididymis?
A:
Maintains tight junctions
Delivers sperm to ductus deferens
Promotes sperm fertilizing capacity
Q: What is the ductus deferens and where does it travel?
A: Structural continuation of the epididymis; travels within the spermatic cord until the pelvic cavity.
Q: What happens before the ductus deferens joins with the seminal vesicle?
A: It enlarges to form its ampulla.
Q: What are the three tissue layers of the ductus deferens?
A: Outer adventitia, middle muscularis, inner mucosa.
Q: What do the paired ejaculatory ducts do?
A: Connect the ductus deferens to urethra and mix sperm cells with seminal plasma.
Q: What are the three parts of the male urethra?
A: Prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra.
Q: What is the function of the male urethra?
A: Conducts semen out of the male reproductive tract during ejaculation.
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Penile Anatomy & Erection
Q: What are the erectile bodies of the penis?
A: Paired corpora cavernosa and a single corpus spongiosum.
Q: How does blood enter the corpora cavernosa?
A: Through the cavernosal artery.
Q: What is the primary function of the corpus spongiosum?
A: Ensures the urethra remains a functional ejaculatory pathway during erection.
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Male Accessory Sex Glands
Q: How do the seminal vesicles connect to the reproductive tract?
A: Each excretory duct joins with the ampulla of ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.
Q: What is the structure of the seminal vesicle lumen?
A: Highly-convoluted irregular mucosa to increase surface area.
Q: What surrounds the seminal vesicle lumen?
A: Two layers of smooth muscle that squeeze products out during ejaculation.
Q: What is the prostate gland?
A: The largest human accessory sex gland.
Q: Where do the lobules of the prostate open into?
A: The prostatic urethra.
Q: What percentage of seminal plasma is produced by the prostate gland?
A: Approximately 30%.
Q: What factors does the prostate secrete to promote sperm function?
A: Citric acid, PSAP, zinc, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), hCAP-18.
Q: What is the bulbourethral gland and its function?
A: 2 cm-long ducts that join with the spongy urethra; produce pre-ejaculate.
Q: What is the composition and role of pre-ejaculate?
A: Clear, alkaline fluid made of lubricating proteins and neutralizing mucins; ~5% of total ejaculate.
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Female Reproductive Anatomy: Ovaries & Follicles
Q: Where are the ovaries positioned and anchored?
A: On either side of the uterus, anchored by the mesovarium.
Q: Where do ovarian vessels and nerves pass through?
A: The hilum.
Q: What does the ovarian cortex contain?
A: Dense connective tissue with thousands of ovarian follicles and developing germ cells.
Q: What is in the ovarian medulla?
A: Areolar connective tissue with arteries, veins, nerves, and lymphatics.
Q: What are the roles of theca and granulosa cells?
A:
Theca cells: convert cholesterol into androgens.
Granulosa cells: maintain and mature oocytes; convert androgens into estrogen.
Q: What happens to the oocyte during tertiary follicle development?
A: It and surrounding granulosa cells are displaced to one side of the antrum.
Q: What do the cumulus oophorus and corona radiata do?
A: Specialized granulosa cells that later help in oocyte protection and release.
Q: What forms the corpus luteum?
A: Granulosa and thecal cells after ovulation.
Q: What happens to the corpus luteum if no pregnancy occurs?
A: Degenerates into corpus albicans, which is later resorbed.
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Female Reproductive Anatomy: Uterine Ducts & Uterus
Q: What are the 4 regions of the uterine (fallopian) ducts?
A:
Infundibulum (with fimbriae)
Ampulla (site of fertilization)
Isthmus (1/3 of length)
Intramural segment (enters uterine cavity)
Q: What are the layers of the uterine ducts?
A:
Serosa (outer)
Two smooth muscle layers (middle)
Ciliated mucosa (inner)
Q: What does the uterine duct mucosa produce?
A: Tubular fluid that promotes gamete/zygote survival and capacitation.
Q: What are the 4 regions of the uterus?
A: Fundus, body, isthmus, cervix.
Q: What are the functions of the uterus?
A: Receives, retains, and nourishes the fetus.
Q: What are the 3 layers of the uterus?
A:
Perimetrium (outer serosa)
Myometrium (3 layers of smooth muscle)
Endometrium (implantation site)
Q: What are the two layers of the endometrium?
A:
Basal layer: permanent; contains arteries and uterine glands.
Functional layer: hormone-responsive; grows and sheds during menses.
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Cervix & Vagina
Q: What is the cervix and what does it do?
A: Dome-like structure that projects into the vagina; produces mucus that slows sperm and microorganisms.
Q: What is the vaginal structure and function?
A:
Functions: copulatory organ, menstruation passage, birth canal.
Layers: outer adventitia, middle muscularis, inner mucosa.
Home to non-pathogenic microorganisms due to warm, moist environment.
TERM: Capacitation
DEFINITION: Last step maturation process required for fertilization.
TERM: Steps of sperm capacitation
DEFINITION: 1. Insemination, 2. Initial capacitation, 3. Sperm reservoir, 4. Hyperactivation, 5. Sperm penetrates cumulus mass, 6. Zona penetration.
TERM: Fertilization definition
DEFINITION: Fusion of a sperm and an oocyte.
TERM: Zona pellucida (ZP)
DEFINITION: Species-specific barrier surrounding the oocyte.
TERM: Acrosome reaction
DEFINITION: Rupture of acrosome and release of proteases to digest ZP.
TERM: Role of hyperactive sperm
DEFINITION: Penetrate into the perivitelline space (PVS).
TERM: Sperm docking site on oocyte
DEFINITION: Oocyte microvilli, excluding area overlying pronucleus.
TERM: Egg activation trigger
DEFINITION: PLCz (sperm protein) triggers Caยฒโบ release from oocyte ER.
TERM: Cortical reaction
DEFINITION: Cortical granules released into PVS to block polyspermy.
TERM: Function of cortical reaction
DEFINITION: Creates a new barrier to prevent additional sperm fusion.
TERM: Consequence of fertilization
DEFINITION: Fusion of pronuclei and formation of diploid zygote.
TERM: Second meiotic division
DEFINITION: Occurs in oocyte after activation; polar body is extruded.
TERM: Sperm nucleus reprogramming
DEFINITION: Sperm DNA packaged with maternal histones; maternal mitochondria preserved.
TERM: Four stages of early embryogenesis
DEFINITION: Cleavage, compaction, blastocyst formation, hatching.
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Implantation & Placenta
TERM: Apposition (implantation step 1)
DEFINITION: Stromal edema brings blastocyst near uterine wall.
TERM: Attachment (implantation step 2)
DEFINITION: Blastocyst inner cell mass orients toward endometrium; trophoblast layers begin forming.
TERM: Penetration (implantation step 3)
DEFINITION: Blastocyst burrows into stroma and separates from maternal tissue.
TERM: Structure of placenta
DEFINITION: Chimeric organ made of maternal and embryonic tissue; contains cotyledons.
TERM: Functions of placenta
DEFINITION: Material exchange organ and endocrine organ (produces pregnancy hormones).
TERM: Amnion, chorion, and placenta
DEFINITION: Extra-embryonic structures that support development.
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Pregnancy Complications
TERM: Ectopic pregnancy
DEFINITION: Embryo implants outside uterus; caused by blocked ovum passage.
TERM: Placenta previa
DEFINITION: Placenta implants near/over cervix; risks spontaneous abortion or preterm birth.
TERM: Preeclampsia
DEFINITION: Sudden pregnancy-induced hypertension.
TERM: Dystocia
DEFINITION: Difficult labor due to fetal position or narrow vaginal canal; may require C-section.
TERM: Physiologically immature baby
DEFINITION: Weighs less than 2,500 g; high risk at birth.
TERM: Placenta percreta
DEFINITION: Placenta grows through the uterine wall.
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Hormones of Pregnancy
TERM: hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
DEFINITION: Produced by chorion; detectable ~10 days after ovulation.
TERM: Estrogen in pregnancy
DEFINITION: Promotes uterine contraction and parturition.
TERM: Progesterone in pregnancy
DEFINITION: Prevents uterine contractions.
TERM: Placental lactogen (PL)
DEFINITION: Shifts fuel to fetus; has anti-insulin properties.
TERM: Prolactin (PRL)
DEFINITION: Promotes maternal energy use during illness or stress; from placenta & anterior pituitary.
TERM: Relaxin
DEFINITION: Regulates osmoregulation and cardiovascular changes.
TERM: CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone)
DEFINITION: Increases DHEA for estrogen synthesis; signal for parturition.
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Labor & Lactation
TERM: Cervical effacement and dilation
DEFINITION: First stage of labor; includes effacement contractions and cervix widening.
TERM: Fetal and placental expulsion
DEFINITION: Second and third stages of labor, respectively.
TERM: Colostrum
DEFINITION: Early milk; watery, high-protein fluid made in first days postpartum.
TERM: Milk production & release
DEFINITION: Stimulated by prolactin and oxytocin, respectively.
TERM: Main stimulus for prolactin after birth
DEFINITION: Suckling.
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Postpartum Changes
TERM: Acute postpartum changes
DEFINITION: HR and BP slightly decrease; temperature slightly elevated (within 24 hrs).
TERM: Early postpartum changes
DEFINITION: Weight loss, breast enlargement, colostrum production, vaginal discharge (lochia).
TERM: Late postpartum changes
DEFINITION: Breast milk increases; menstruation returns (4โ5 months if breastfeeding, 6โ8 weeks if not).
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Endocrine Control & Menstrual Cycle
TERM: Hormones controlling gametogenesis
DEFINITION: GnRH, LH, FSH (hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis).
TERM: GnRH function
DEFINITION: Stimulates release of LH and FSH from anterior pituitary.
TERM: Follicular phase
DEFINITION: Dominated by estrogen; follicle grows in preparation for ovulation.
TERM: Luteal phase
DEFINITION: Presence of corpus luteum; progesterone dominates.
TERM: Early follicular phase hormones
DEFINITION: Estrogen low, FSH rises, then inhibited by inhibin; estrogen begins to increase.
TERM: Mid-follicular phase hormones
DEFINITION: One follicle remains; estrogen rises; small LH surge.
TERM: Late follicular phase and LH surge
DEFINITION: Estrogen peaks โ positive feedback โ LH surge โ ovulation โ corpus luteum forms.
TERM: Corpus luteum hormones
DEFINITION: Produces progesterone and estrogen; regresses without pregnancy.
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Inheritance & Contraception
TERM: Mendelian inheritance
DEFINITION: Dominant gene causes a trait; recessive is masked unless inherited from both parents.
TERM: Incomplete dominance
DEFINITION: Blended phenotype when two alleles are inherited.
TERM: Co-dominance
DEFINITION: Both alleles expressed equally (e.g., blood type AB).
TERM: Sex-linked inheritance
DEFINITION: Trait linked to X or Y chromosome; Y-linked seen only in males.
TERM: Color blindness
DEFINITION: Example of an X-linked recessive trait.
TERM: STD (Sexually Transmitted Disease)
DEFINITION: Infections spread through sexual contact.
TERM: Contraceptive effectiveness
DEFINITION: Measured by % of women with unintended pregnancy in 1 year of typical use.