11ena

Fiction

Genre-specific Techniques:

1. Characterisation

   • Direct characterisation: The author explicitly describes a character's traits (e.g., "She was kind and gentle").

   • Indirect characterisation: The reader infers traits through a character's actions, dialogue, thoughts, or how others react to them.

   • Archetype: A universal character model or pattern (e.g., the hero, the mentor).

   • Foil: A character who contrasts with another, highlighting their traits.

2. Plot and Structure

   • Linear narrative: Events are presented in chronological order.

   • Non-linear narrative: Events are presented out of order (e.g., flashbacks, flashforwards).

   • Conflict: The main problem driving the story, either internal (character vs. self) or external (character vs. other forces like society, nature, or another character).

   • Foreshadowing: Hints about events to come.

   • Climax: The turning point or moment of highest tension.

3. Setting

   • The time, place, and social context of the story. Setting can contribute to the mood (emotional tone) or act as a symbol.

   • Pathetic fallacy: Attributing human emotions to nature or the environment to reflect mood.

4. Narrative Voice

   • First-person: The narrator is a character in the story (e.g., "I walked to the store").

   • Third-person limited: The narrator knows the thoughts of one character.

   • Third-person omniscient: The narrator knows the thoughts of all characters.

   • Unreliable narrator: A narrator whose credibility is questionable.

   • Stream of consciousness: A narrative style that mimics the flow of a character's thoughts.

   • Intrusive narrator: A narrator who interrupts the story to provide commentary.

5. Language Techniques

   • Imagery: Descriptive language appealing to the senses (e.g., "The roses smelled sweet and filled the air with a heady aroma").

   • Figurative language: Creative expressions that go beyond literal meaning, including:

     • Metaphor: Direct comparison (e.g., "Her smile was sunshine").

     • Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as" (e.g., "He ran like the wind").

     • Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things (e.g., "The wind whispered through the trees").

   • Symbolism: Using objects or characters to represent abstract ideas (e.g., a dove symbolizing peace).

   • Motif: A recurring element, such as an image or idea, that reinforces themes.

   • Allusion: A reference to another text, historical event, or cultural figure.

   • Allegory: A story functioning as an extended metaphor where characters and events represent abstract ideas (e.g., George Orwell's Animal Farm).

6. Tone and Mood

   • Tone: The author’s attitude toward the subject (e.g., serious, sarcastic, playful).

   • Mood: The emotional atmosphere created by the text (e.g., eerie, uplifting).

Nonfiction

Genre-specific Techniques:

1. Purpose and Audience

   • Purpose: The reason the author writes the text (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain, or reflect).

   • Audience: The intended readers or viewers, influencing tone and style.

2. Structure

   • Chronological: Events or points presented in time order.

   • Cause and Effect: Explaining why something happens and its consequences.

   • Compare and Contrast: Highlighting similarities and differences between ideas.

   • Problem-Solution: Presenting an issue and proposing resolutions.

   • Cyclical structure: A structure where the ending mirrors or reflects the beginning.

   • Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas, events, or descriptions close together for effect.

3. Language Features

   • Formal language: Polished, professional tone with precise vocabulary.

   • Informal language: Conversational tone, including colloquialisms and slang.

   • Rhetorical questions: Questions posed to provoke thought rather than elicit an answer (e.g., "Who wouldn’t want success?").

   • Cliche: an over-used expression. (e.g., It was a dark and stormy night).

4. Rhetorical Devices

   • Ethos: Establishing credibility or authority (e.g., citing expertise).

   • Pathos: Appealing to emotions (e.g., a personal anecdote).

   • Logos: Appealing to logic through facts and statistics.

   • Chiasmus: A rhetorical figure where words or phrases are reversed for effect (e.g., "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country").

   • Antithesis: Contrasting ideas placed in parallel structures (e.g., "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times").

   • Jargon: Specialised language used, often defined by profession or group of shared interests.

5. Persuasive Techniques

   • Hyperbole: Deliberate exaggeration for effect (e.g., "This product will change your life!").

   • Anecdote: A short personal story to illustrate a point.

   • Direct address: Speaking directly to the audience (e.g., "You need to act now").

   • Imperative: An order or command for an action.

   • Repetition: words or statements used more than once for emphasis

6. Narrator Perspective

   • Point of view: The author’s perspective or stance.

   • Bias: The author's subjective views or preferences, often revealed through word choice.

7. Stylistic Devices

   • Euphemism: Mild or indirect phrasing to soften harsh realities (e.g., "passed away" instead of "died").

   • Satire: Use of humour, irony, or ridicule to criticise or expose flaws in individuals or society.

Poetry

Genre-specific Techniques:

1. Structure

   • Lineation: How lines are arranged in the poem (e.g., long lines, short lines).

   • Stanza forms: Groupings of lines (e.g., couplets, quatrains).

   • Enjambment: A line that flows without pause into the next.

   • Caesura: A pause within a line, often marked by punctuation.

   • Volta: A shift in tone or argument, especially in sonnets.

   • Free verse: Poetry without a regular rhyme or meter.

2. Imagery:

   • Vivid sensory descriptions to evoke specific images or emotions.

3. Sound Devices

   • Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds.

   • Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds (e.g., "The rain in Spain").

   • Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds (e.g., "buzz," "clang").

   • Sibilance: Repetition of "s" or "sh" sounds to create a hissing or soothing effect.

   • Cacophony: Use of harsh, discordant sounds.

   • Euphony: Use of pleasing, harmonious sounds.

4. Figurative Language

   • Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as."

   • Metaphor: Direct comparison.

   • Personification: Attributing human qualities to non-human entities.

   • Hyperbole: Exaggeration for effect.

5. Tone and Mood

   • Tone: The speaker’s attitude (e.g., reflective, defiant).

   • Mood: The emotional effect on the reader (e.g., melancholic, jubilant).

6. Perspective and Voice

   • Persona: The voice or role assumed by the poet or speaker.

   • Dramatic monologue: A poem in which the speaker addresses a silent listener, revealing their character indirectly.