Unit 4 Psych (copy)

4.1.A.1

Attributions - are the explanations individuals create for the causes of behaviors and events. They help people understand and predict others' actions, as well as their own, by attributing causes to internal dispositions or external situations.

Dispositional Attributions - also known as internal attributions, assign the cause of behavior to inherent qualities, traits, or characteristics of the individual. If a colleague consistently meets deadlines, we might attribute their behavior to their diligence and strong work ethic.

Situational attributions -or external attributions, assign the cause of behavior to external factors or circumstances beyond the individual's control. If someone is late to a meeting, attributing their tardiness to heavy traffic or public transportation delays is a situational attribution.

4.1.A.2

Explanatory Style - refers to how people habitually explain the causes of events. It can be optimistic or pessimistic, affecting one's mental health and overall outlook on life. After losing a job, an optimist might believe it was due to the company's financial troubles (external, specific) and feel confident about finding a new job, while a pessimist might think they are not talented (internal, stable) and feel hopeless.

4.1.A.3

Actor/Observer Bias - is the tendency for individuals to attribute their own actions to situational factors, while attributing others' actions to dispositional factors. If a person cuts someone off in traffic, they might justify it by needing to get to an important appointment (situational), but if someone else cuts them off, they might think the other driver is reckless (dispositional).

Fundamental Attribution Error - is the tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviors. Observing a server being rude might lead to assuming they have a bad attitude (dispositional) rather than considering they might be under stress from a busy shift (situational).

Self-Serving Bias - is the tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors, enhancing self-esteem and protecting the self-concept. A student who gets a good grade on a test might attribute it to their intelligence and hard work (internal), but if they get a bad grade, they might blame the teacher's unfair questions or a noisy environment (external).

4.1.B

Locus of Control - a concept developed by Julian Rotter, refers to an individual's belief about the extent to which they have control over the events that affect their lives. It is typically divided into two types:

Internal Locus of Control: Individuals believe that they have significant control over the outcomes of their actions. They attribute success or failure to their own efforts, skills, and abilities. A student with an internal locus of control believes that their academic success is due to their hard work and study habits. They are likely to seek additional resources and put in extra effort to improve their grades.

External Locus of Control: Individuals believe that external forces, such as luck, fate, or other people, primarily influence the outcomes of their actions. They feel that their lives are controlled by factors beyond their control. An employee with an external locus of control might attribute a promotion to favoritism rather than their own performance. As a result, they might not actively seek professional development opportunities or put in extra effort.

4.1.C.1

Mere Exposure Effect - is a psychological phenomenon where individuals tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases the likelihood of a positive evaluation of that stimulus. This effect operates subconsciously and influences attitudes, preferences, and social interactions. Companies use repeated advertisements to increase consumer familiarity with their products. Even if individuals are not consciously aware of the advertisements, the mere exposure effect can lead to a preference for advertised products over unfamiliar ones.

4.1.C.2

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - is a psychological phenomenon where an individual's expectations about another person or situation influence their behavior toward that person or situation, leading the expected outcome to occur. In an educational setting, a teacher who believes a student is exceptionally capable may provide more attention, encouragement, and challenging material. The student, in turn, may rise to the occasion, displaying improved performance and motivation, thereby confirming the teacher's original belief.

4.1.C.3

Social Comparison Theory -proposed by Leon Festinger, suggests that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others. This process involves comparing oneself to others to evaluate abilities, opinions, and overall self-worth. In the workplace, an employee might compare their performance and achievements to those of their colleagues. Observing a peer receiving a promotion could inspire them to work harder (upward comparison), while seeing a colleague struggle might make them feel more competent and satisfied with their own performance (downward comparison).

Relative Deprivation Refers - to the perception that one is worse off relative to others with whom they compare themselves. It is a subjective feeling of discontent and resentment arising from the belief that one lacks resources or opportunities compared to others in a similar situation. In a social context, individuals from a marginalized community might experience relative deprivation when they perceive that they lack the same socioeconomic opportunities and privileges enjoyed by more affluent groups. This perception can lead to social movements or protests aimed at addressing and correcting systemic inequalities

4.2.A.1

Stereotype - is a generalized belief about a particular group of people. These beliefs can be positive or negative and often arise from overgeneralizing traits or behaviors observed in a few individuals within a group. Assuming all teenagers are rebellious can lead to unfair treatment of individual teens who do not fit this stereotype, affecting their self-esteem and social interactions.

Prejudice - is a preconceived opinion or attitude about an individual or group, typically based on stereotypes and often without a factual basis. It is usually negative and involves an emotional response. Racial prejudice can result in social exclusion and unequal opportunities for people of certain ethnic backgrounds, impacting their educational and employment prospects.

Discrimination - is the behavior or actions, often negative, directed towards an individual or group based on prejudice. It involves treating people unfairly because of their membership in a particular group. Gender discrimination in the workplace can result in unequal pay and limited career advancement opportunities for women, affecting their economic status and job satisfaction.

4.2.A.2

Implicit Attitudes - are unconscious beliefs or feelings towards a group or individual. These attitudes can influence behavior without the individual's conscious awareness. An employer might unconsciously favor candidates from certain backgrounds during hiring, despite intending to provide equal opportunities for all applicants.

Just-World Phenomenon is the cognitive bias that leads individuals to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve. This belief can justify existing social inequalities. Believing that homeless individuals are solely responsible for their situation can reduce societal support for policies aimed at addressing homelessness.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias - is the tendency to view members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of one's in-group. This bias can contribute to stereotyping. A person might perceive all members of a rival sports team as aggressive, despite variations in individual behavior and personality within the team.

In-Group Bias - is the preference for and favoritism towards one's own group over out-groups. This bias can enhance group cohesion but also foster prejudice and discrimination against out-groups. Employees may favor colleagues from their own department when collaborating on projects, leading to exclusion or undervaluation of input from other departments.

Ethnocentrism - is the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture. It involves judging other cultures by the standards of one's own. Ethnocentrism can manifest in international business, where managers impose their own cultural norms on foreign employees, leading to workplace tension and reduced productivity.

4.2.B.1

Belief perseverance is the tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence supporting it has been discredited. It highlights the difficulty individuals face in changing their beliefs, even when confronted with contradictory information. A person continues to believe in the effectiveness of a debunked medical treatment despite overwhelming scientific evidence against it. This perseverance can affect health-related decisions and adherence to effective medical advice.

Confirmation Bias - is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence. During an election, a voter might only read news sources that support their favored candidate and dismiss articles from opposing viewpoints, reinforcing their political beliefs and reducing exposure to diverse information.

4.2.B.2

Cognitive Dissonance - a theory proposed by Leon Festinger, refers to the psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting cognitions (e.g., beliefs, attitudes, behaviors). To reduce this discomfort, individuals are motivated to change one of the conflicting cognitions or add new ones to create consistency. A smoker who knows that smoking is harmful may experience cognitive dissonance. To reduce the dissonance, they might either quit smoking, downplay the health risks, or convince themselves that the benefits of smoking outweigh the risks. This rationalization helps alleviate the psychological discomfort.

4.3.A.1

Social Norms - are the implicit or explicit rules that govern the behavior of individuals within a group or society. These norms dictate acceptable and unacceptable behaviors, guiding how individuals interact with one another. In many cultures, it is a social norm to shake hands when greeting someone. This behavior promotes politeness and mutual respect. Deviating from this norm, such as refusing to shake hands, might be perceived as rude or disrespectful.

4.3.A.2

Social Influence Theory - examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the presence, opinions, and actions of others. This theory encompasses various forms of social influence, including conformity, compliance, and obedience. n a workplace, an employee might change their work habits to match those of their colleagues, believing that this will lead to better acceptance and integration within the team.

Normative Social Influence - occurs when individuals conform to a group’s expectations to gain social approval or avoid social disapproval. This type of influence is driven by the desire to fit in and be liked by others. Teenagers often experience normative social influence when they adopt the fashion styles, slang, and behaviors of their peer group to avoid being ostracized or ridiculed.

Informational Social Influence - occurs when individuals conform to the behavior of others because they believe those others have accurate knowledge and that conforming will help them make correct decisions. This type of influence is based on the desire to be right.During an emergency, people might look to others' reactions to determine the appropriate course of action. If everyone starts evacuating a building, an individual is likely to follow, assuming that the group’s behavior is based on accurate information about a potential danger.

4.3.A.3

Persuasion - involves changing someone’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through argument, reasoning, or appeal. Persuasion can occur through various routes, including the central route (logical and evidence-based arguments) and the peripheral route (emotional appeals and superficial cues). Advertising often uses persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior. A commercial for a new smartphone might use a central route by highlighting its innovative features and superior performance. Alternatively, it might use a peripheral route by featuring a popular celebrity endorsing the product.

4.3.A.3.i

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) - developed by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo, explains how people are persuaded and the different routes of persuasion. The model proposes two routes: the central route and the peripheral route.

Central Route: Involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information presented. This route is used when the audience is motivated and has the ability to think about the message. It leads to more enduring attitude changes. A consumer reading detailed reviews and researching specifications before purchasing a new car.

Peripheral Route: Involves less cognitive effort and is influenced by superficial cues, such as the attractiveness or credibility of the source. This route is used when the audience is either unmotivated or unable to process the message deeply, leading to temporary attitude changes.A consumer being swayed to buy a product because a celebrity endorses it, regardless of the product’s merits.

Halo Effect - is a cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait (e.g., attractiveness) influences the perception of other unrelated traits (e.g., intelligence or kindness). An attractive person may be perceived as more intelligent or competent by their peers or employers, even if there is no evidence to support these perceptions.

4.3.A.3.ii

Foot-in-the-Door Technique - is a persuasion strategy that involves getting a person to agree to a small initial request, followed by a larger request. This technique leverages the principle of consistency. A charity organization might first ask individuals to sign a petition (small request) and later ask them to make a donation (larger request).

Door-in-the-Face Technique - is a persuasion strategy that involves making a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. This technique leverages the principle of reciprocity. A salesperson might initially propose an expensive product (large request) and, after the customer declines, offer a more affordable option (smaller request), which the customer is more likely to accept.

4.3.A.4

Conformity - refers to the tendency of individuals to adjust their behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to align with those of a group or social norm. This process is often driven by the desire for social acceptance and the avoidance of social rejection. Conformity can be influenced by various factors such as group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, and cultural norms.In Solomon Asch's classic conformity experiments, participants were asked to match line lengths. Despite clear evidence of the correct answer, many conformed to the incorrect majority response, demonstrating the powerful impact of social pressure on behavior.

Obedience - involves following orders or directives from an authority figure. Unlike conformity, which is peer-driven, obedience is influenced by hierarchical social structures. The phenomenon of obedience highlights the power of authority and the situational factors that can lead individuals to comply with commands, even when they conflict with personal morals or ethics. Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments revealed that individuals would administer seemingly harmful electric shocks to others when instructed by an authority figure, illustrating the extent to which people comply with authority, even against their moral judgment.

4.3.B.1

Individualism - is a cultural orientation that emphasizes personal goals, autonomy, and individual rights. In individualistic cultures, personal achievements and self-expression are highly valued. In the United States, an individual might choose a career path based on personal interests and ambitions rather than family expectations or societal needs, reflecting individualistic values.

Collectivism - is a cultural orientation that emphasizes group goals, interdependence, and the importance of social harmony. In collectivist cultures, the well-being of the group takes precedence over individual desires. In Japan, a collectivist society, employees often prioritize company loyalty and teamwork over personal ambitions, leading to a strong emphasis on group cohesion and corporate success.

Multiculturalism - is a societal approach that values and promotes the coexistence of diverse cultural groups. It recognizes and respects cultural differences, encouraging integration and mutual respect. In Canada, multicultural policies support the integration of immigrants while respecting their cultural identities, fostering an inclusive society where diverse cultures contribute to the social fabric.

4.3.B.2

Group Polarization - refers to the tendency for group discussions to amplify the initial leanings of group members, leading to more extreme positions. This occurs when individuals in a group reinforce each other's viewpoints. In political discussions, like-minded individuals may become more radical in their views after discussing issues within a homogenous group, contributing to increased political polarization.

Groupthink - is a psychological phenomenon where the desire for group cohesion and consensus overrides realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. It often leads to poor decision-making. The Bay of Pigs invasion is a classic example of groupthink, where US government officials ignored potential risks and dissenting opinions to maintain group consensus, resulting in a failed military operation.

Diffusion of Responsibility - occurs when individuals in a group feel less personally accountable for their actions because responsibility is shared among all members. This can lead to decreased motivation to act. In emergency situations, bystanders may fail to help a person in distress, assuming that someone else will intervene, a phenomenon known as the bystander effect.

Social Loafing - is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone. This occurs because individuals feel their contributions are less noticeable. In a group project, some team members may contribute less effort, relying on others to carry the workload, leading to unequal participation and potential conflicts.

Deindividuation - is a psychological state where individuals lose self-awareness and personal accountability in groups, leading to behavior that is uncharacteristic and often uninhibited. During large-scale events like protests or riots, individuals may engage in vandalism or violence, behaviors they would not typically exhibit if they were alone or easily identifiable.

4.3.B.3

Social Facilitation - refers to the tendency for people to perform tasks better when they are in the presence of others. This effect is particularly noticeable with simple or well-learned tasks. Conversely, performance on complex or new tasks may worsen under observation, a phenomenon known as social inhibition. Athletes often perform better in competitions with large audiences compared to when they practice alone. A student may solve familiar math problems more quickly during a timed group test but struggle with new types of problems under the same conditions.

4.3.B.4

False Consensus Effect - is a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are shared by others. This bias leads to the assumption that others think and behave similarly to themselves. In a workplace, an employee who dislikes a new policy might assume that most of their colleagues share this negative view, leading them to vocalize opposition more confidently.

4.3.B.5

Superordinate Goals - are objectives that require cooperation between groups or individuals, transcending individual differences and promoting unity. These goals cannot be achieved by any single group alone and necessitate collaborative efforts. During a natural disaster, rival community groups may come together to provide aid and support to affected individuals, demonstrating unity in achieving the common goal of relief and recovery.

Social Traps - occur when individuals or groups pursue short-term gains that ultimately lead to negative long-term consequences for the group as a whole. These situations often involve a conflict between individual interests and collective welfare. Overfishing is a social trap where individual fishers benefit in the short term by catching large quantities of fish, but this practice leads to the depletion of fish populations, harming the entire fishing community in the long run.

4.3.B.6

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychologists - apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace to improve productivity, work quality, and the well-being of employees. They study and address issues related to human behavior in organizational settings. An I-O psychologist might design a training program to improve teamwork and communication among employees, leading to increased productivity and a more positive work environment. They may also implement policies to reduce workplace stress and enhance job satisfaction.

4.3.C.1

Altruism - is a form of prosocial behavior where an individual acts to benefit others without expecting any personal gain or reward. It is motivated by a genuine concern for the welfare of others. A person donates a kidney to a stranger, undergoing significant personal risk and discomfort to save another's life without expecting anything in return.

Social Reciprocity Norm - is a social rule that encourages individuals to repay, in kind, what another person has provided. It is the expectation that people will respond to each other in similar ways, creating mutual benefit and cooperation. If a colleague helps you with a project at work, you are more likely to assist them in the future, maintaining a reciprocal relationship of support and cooperation.

4.3.C.2

Bystander Effect - is a social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency situation when other people are present. The presence of others diffuses the sense of personal responsibility. In a crowded street, a person collapses, and despite the presence of many people, no one immediately steps forward to help, each assuming someone else will take action.

Situational Variables refer to the environmental and contextual factors that influence prosocial behavior, while Attentional Variables relate to where an individual's focus is directed in a givensituation. In a busy airport, a traveler is more likely to help someone who drops their belongings if the area is less crowded and they are not rushing to catch a flight, as both situational calm and focused attention increase the likelihood of noticing and responding to the need for help.