pscych ch1

Unit 1 - The Scientific Foundations of Psychology

History

• Psychology combines aspects of physiology and philosophy.

• John Locke proposed the idea of Tabula Rosa, suggesting the mind is a blank slate at birth.

Important People in Psychology

• Wave 1:

  • William James: Authored the first psychology textbook in 1890; launched functionalism.

  • William Wundt: Established the first psychology lab in Germany; introduced structuralism through introspection.

• Wave 3:

  • Sigmund Freud: Developed psychoanalysis focusing on conscious and unconscious processes.

• Wave 4:

  • B.F. Skinner: Promoted behaviorism; focused on conditioning and behavior modification.

• Current Wave:

  • Eclectic Approach: Incorporates multiple perspectives in psychology.

Research Methods

• Theory: Supported by facts/evidence.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction related to a theory.

• Null Hypothesis: A statement to be tested aiming for statistical significance.

  • Example: "Plant growth is not affected by light color."

• Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe one could have predicted an event after the fact.

• Operational Definition: Specifies how variables will be measured for clarity and replication.

• Coincidence Error: The human tendency to see patterns in random data.

• Overconfidence Error: Assurance in correctness that leads to error in judgment.

Sampling Techniques

• Sampling: Method of selecting participants for a study.

• Representative Sample: Ideally represents a larger population.

  • Example: Diverse demographics in a sample versus a homogeneous group.

• Random Selection: Enhances representativeness by selecting subjects randomly.

  • Example: Randomly choosing students from a school.

• Stratified Sample: Ensures sample represents specific characteristics (e.g., race).

Experimental Method

• Provides insight into cause-and-effect relationships through variable manipulation.

• Confounding Variable: External factor affecting results, should be controlled.

• Random Assignment: Prevents bias in group assignment during experiments.

• Independent Variable: The manipulated variable (e.g., hours of sleep).

• Dependent Variable: The measured outcome (e.g., performance level).

Biases in Research

• Experimental Bias: Occurs when researchers unintentionally influence participants.

• Subject Bias: Participants may behave differently due to awareness of the study's purpose.

  • Can be mitigated using a single-blind procedure.

• Double-Blind Procedure: Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, reducing bias.

• Placebo Effect: Participants' beliefs influence their perceived outcomes.

Correlational Studies

• Correlation: Measures relationship between two variables; does not imply causation.

  • Positive correlation: Both variables increase together.

  • Negative correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.

• Scatterplots: Visual representation of correlations.

• Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from -1 (strong negative) to +1 (strong positive).

Other Types of Studies

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment.

• Case Study: In-depth study focusing on an individual or small group; not generalizable.

• Surveys/Interviews: Collecting self-reported data; reliant on random sampling for validity.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mode: Most common value.

• Mean: Average score, calculated by dividing the total by number of scores.

• Median: Middle value when data is ordered.

Measures of Variation

• Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.

• Standard Deviation: Measures how much scores deviate from the mean.

Ethics in Psychology

• Milgram’s Obedience Test: Raised ethical concerns due to participant anxiety.

• Ethical Guidelines:

  1. Informed consent.

  2. Do no harm.

  3. Debriefing after study.

  4. Confidentiality.

  5. Right to withdraw at any time.

• Deception may be ethically permissible if it doesn't harm participants.