AP Comparative Government & Politics - Russia

Russia: An Overview

• Russia is a federal state comprising 83 local governments categorized under six types, united under a national federation.
• It operates with three supreme branches of government.
• Russia is the largest country in the world by territory.
• It spans eight time zones and borders fourteen states from Finland and Norway in the west to China and North Korea in the east.

Geography and Resources

• Much of Russia's land is cold and dry, which limits agriculture and civilization.
• Most of the population resides in the western part of Russia, considered part of Europe, while the eastern territory in Asia is sparsely populated.
• Russia is the second-largest producer of natural gas, behind the United States.

Political Culture

Statism

• Russia’s history of invasions has cultivated a political culture valuing a strong state for defense.
• Respect for individual rights and civil liberties is not a primary concern.

Equality of Result

• Historically, unstable food supplies led citizens to expect state intervention during crises.
• There is a deep-seated suspicion of the wealthy, who are often assumed to have gained their wealth through exploitation.
• The state is seen as the solution to inequality.

Skepticism About Those In Power

• Russians often distrust individuals in power, assuming corruption or incompetence among bureaucrats.
• This leads to resignation regarding poor results, as the state is seen as the only solution but is not trusted to execute it effectively.

East vs. West (Slavophile vs. Westernizer)

• Russian political culture is marked by a struggle between modeling after Western European values and remaining true to Eastern traditions.
• This is evident in leaders who are either “Westernizers” (e.g., Peter the Great, Boris Yeltsin) or “Slavophiles” (e.g., nobles opposing Peter the Great, Vladimir Putin).

Early Traditions

• Christianity was adopted as the state religion in 988, closely linking church and state.
• The schism between Eastern and Western Churches was formalized in 1054.
• The ideals of the Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment, which promoted individual rights, did not take hold in Russian political culture.

Tsarist Rule

• Russian Tsars, initially princes over Moscow under Mongolian rule, established a tradition of strong, authoritarian rule after Ivan III.
• Westernizing leaders like Peter the Great (1682–1725) occasionally disrupted this pattern, but reforms often led to internal chaos.
• Catherine the Great (1762–1796) also sought Westernization, inspired by Enlightenment ideas.

Path to Revolution

• Conflict between the Tsarist regime and liberalizing forces resulted in the Decembrist Revolt in 1825, which was suppressed by Tsar Nicholas I.
• Loss in the Crimean War (1853–1856) highlighted the need for modernization.
• Alexander II (1855–1881) initiated reforms, including freeing serfs, establishing local assemblies (zemstvas), reorganizing the judiciary, and planning an elected national parliament (Duma).
• Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 led to street riots and Tsar Nicholas II (1894–1917) creating the Duma to transition to a constitutional monarchy.
• World War I led to Nicholas II's abdication and the collapse of the state.

Marxism, Leninism, and the Revolution of 1917

• Many Russian political agitators were Marxists, following the ideology of Karl Marx.
• Marxism critiques capitalism and private property as exploitative, stealing labor from the working class (proletariat) to enrich the property-owning class (bourgeoisie).
• Marxism calls for a proletarian revolution to collectively own labor products, eliminating poor working conditions.
• Vladimir Lenin advocated for a small, elite revolutionary leadership to guide workers, known as democratic centralism.

Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP)

• Lenin's NEP granted private property ownership to peasant farmers and allowed them to profit from sales.
• The NEP successfully addressed food problems and brought prosperity, but it ended after Lenin's death.

Stalinism

• Joseph Stalin succeeded Lenin from 1922 to 1953, centralizing all economic activity under state control and ending the NEP.
• Stalin labeled wealthy peasant landowners as kulaks and implemented collectivization, seizing their property for state-owned collective farms.
• The aim was to feed cities and transform Russia into an industrial power.
• Leaders were selected through nomenklatura, requiring personal connections and service to those in power for advancement.
• The party was structured in a hierarchy, with the Central Committee (300 members) and the Politburo (12 executive leaders).
• The General Secretary acted as a dictatorial chief executive.

The Cold War

• Stalin's foreign policy was marked by hostility between Russia and the West, known as the Cold War (1945–1991).

Reforms After Stalin

• Nikita Khrushchev initiated reforms, decentralizing power within the party and denouncing purges.
• Khrushchev tried to de-escalate Cold War tensions through “peaceful coexistence,” challenged by the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.

Economic Problems and Reform Under Gorbachev

• Neither Khrushchev’s nor Brezhnev’s economic programs addressed the underlying issues of the Soviet economy.
• The Soviet economy lacked market incentives and the fear-driven production of Stalin’s era.
• Mikhail Gorbachev (General Secretary from 1985 to 1991) proposed reforms to save the economy through:
  • Glasnost (openness):
    • Allowed sharing and discussion of information to counteract the suppression of negative news.
    • Resulted in criticism of state corruption and dysfunction, particularly in Soviet republics resenting Russian domination.
  • Perestroika:
    • Limited market reform to modernize economic practices.
    • Authorized private companies to compete with state-owned industry.
    • Removed some state functions to be performed by the market and penalized underperforming state companies.
  • Democratization:
    • Incorporated limited democracy while preserving the Communist Party.
    • Created a directly elected Congress of People’s Deputies to choose a president of the Soviet Union.
    • Allowed each republic to directly elect its own president (e.g., Boris Yeltsin in Russia in 1991).
    • Created a new political class critical of Gorbachev.

Collapse of the Soviet Union

• In August 1991, hard-line Communist Party members staged a coup to remove Gorbachev.
• Protesters opposed the coup when tanks surrounded the White House.
• After the coup failed, instability prompted many Soviet Republics to seek independence.
• By December, eleven of fifteen Soviet Republics left the Soviet Union without resistance from the Red Army.
• The USSR was formally dissolved on December 26, 1991, and Boris Yeltsin became president of the Russian Federation.

The Yeltsin Years

• Yeltsin aimed to transform Russia into a modern constitutional democracy, drafting the Russian Constitution of 1993.
• The constitution established:
  • A three-branch government.
  • A directly elected and powerful president.
  • A bicameral legislature with a lower house called the Duma.
  • A Constitutional Court with judicial review.
• The constitution was ratified with 54.5% support in a referendum.
• Russia's system of asymmetric federalism grants varying levels of autonomy to regional governments.
• Shock therapy was implemented to rapidly transform Russia into a market economy.
• Oligarchs supported Yeltsin's reelection in 1996, gaining more control in state companies via the “loans for shares” scandal.
• Yeltsin resigned in December 1999, allowing Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to become president in 2000.

Putin: Stability and the Retreat from Democratization

• In 2000, Putin created seven Super-Districts, appointing leaders to supervise local policymaking, in response to terrorist attacks.
• Constitutional amendments allowed the president to remove governors not conforming to the Constitution.
• In 2004, direct election of governors was ended, with the president nominating appointees subject to local legislature confirmation.
• The Federation Council was reformed in 2002, with governors appointing officials instead of serving themselves.
• Presidential elections in 2004, 2008, and 2012 showed signs of state influence.
• Candidates faced disqualification due to technicalities.
• In 2005, State Duma elections changed to a fully PR system, raising the threshold to 7%, benefiting United Russia.
• In 2013, the system reverted to a mixed SMD-PR system.
• The presidential term was extended to six years.
• Putin essentially appointed Dmitri Medvedev as his successor from 2008 to 2012, serving as prime minister himself, then ran again in 2012.

Significant Social Cleavages

Ethnicity and Nationality

• Approximately 80% of Russians are of Russian ethnicity, with the rest being diverse groups like Tartars, Chechens and Armenians.
• Twenty-one groups have their own autonomous “republics” within Russia’s asymmetrical federal system.
• Chechnya has a long history of seeking independence from Russia, resulting in wars and terrorist attacks.

Religion

• Russian Orthodoxy has been the dominant religion, closely tied to the state.
• During Communist rule, religion was suppressed.
• About 40% of Russians identify as Russian Orthodox Christians, 6.5% as Muslim, and 4% as other Christians.
• 25% consider themselves agnostic or nonreligious, while 13% identify as atheists.

Social Class

• Tsarist Russia had a class system based on birthright, which was abolished after the 1917 Revolution in favor of a classless society.
• A new structure emerged with Communist Party officials on top, urban workers in the middle, and rural peasants at the bottom.

Urban vs. Rural

• About 74% of Russians live in urban areas, compared to 26% in rural environments.
• Urban residents generally have a higher standard of living, better education, and are more likely to support Western ideals.

Civil Society

• Russian civil society was corporatist under Communist rule, with the state controlling which groups had influence.
• Independent organizations were banned.
• Civil society is still poorly developed, facing state monitoring and harassment.
• Youth movements like Nashi have tried to build patriotic nationalism among young Russians.

Interest Groups

• While there are over 300,000 registered NGOs, groups critical of the state face barriers.
• A 2006 law allowed banning foreign NGOs if it was in the national interest.
• Business, trade, and labor groups are generally allowed, but those with state ties are most influential.
• Many influential businesses have siloviki (security service veterans) in leadership positions.

Oligarchs

• Super-wealthy oligarchs emerged in the 1990s through insider ties and illicit practices.
• Putin allowed them to keep their wealth as long as they stayed out of politics, punishing those who defied this.

The Media

• Under the Soviet system, only Communist Party propaganda tools were allowed.
• After the USSR's dissolution, a private media market emerged but remains effectively state-controlled.
• The government exerts significant influence without explicit censorship.
• Critical media oligarchs have faced arrest and exile.
• Journalists critical of the government are often killed, such as Anna Politkovskaya.

The Economy

• Russia’s experience with shock therapy led to soaring poverty and inflation.
• The economy recovered under Putin due to rising energy prices, but the 2008 recession caused budget problems.
• Inequality is less pronounced than in other countries studied, and extreme poverty is rare.
• Much of Russia’s economy is still state-owned and reliant on energy; diversification has been a goal.

Foreign Relations with Eastern Europe

• Russia remains a dominant power in Eastern Europe, exemplified by Georgia and Ukraine.
• Russia has used natural gas as a tool of control, cutting off access to Ukraine during trade negotiations.
• Ukrainian politics are divided between pro-Russian and anti-Russian parties.
• Russia annexed Crimea after protests in Ukraine ousted a pro-Russian president.

Foreign Relations with the West

• The USSR was previously a superpower opposing the United States, but that status has been lost.
• Relations between the United States and Russia have deteriorated under Putin.
• Former Soviet satellites seeking NATO or EU membership face Russian resistance.
• NATO membership paths for Georgia and Ukraine were met with Russian military intervention.
• Russia was integrated into the globalized economy in the early 2000s but the annexation of Crimea ended any further integration.
• The G-8 was reduced back to the G-7, and economic sanctions were imposed on Russia.

Population

• Russia faces a population decline.
• The birth rate is only 1.75 children per woman, while 2 is needed to maintain the population.
• Efforts have been made to encourage ethnic Russians to return and promote large families.
• Some regions have even offered incentives for couples to conceive.

The Judiciary

• Under the Soviet system, courts were part of the Communist Party and lacked independence.
• The 1993 Russian Constitution aimed to establish an independent judiciary.
• Cases against opposition oligarchs were not challenged, and security service members are not prosecuted for rights violations.
• Judges are widely believed to be susceptible to bribery.

The Constitutional Court

• The Constitutional Court has 19 members appointed by the president and confirmed by the Federation Council.
• It holds the power of constitutional interpretation and judicial review, but this is rarely borne out in practice.

Supreme Court

• The Russian Supreme Court is the court of last resort with 115 judges.
• It does not have the power to review laws for constitutionality.

The Military

• The military was a source of power for the Soviet Union, but it remained under party control.
• After the USSR's collapse, the Russian president became the commander in chief.
• Russia has the fifth largest active-duty force and is third in military spending.
• Russia has recently engaged in military campaigns in its region, such as in South Ossetia and Ukraine.

Elections

• Russia's system of managed elections is considered an illiberal democracy.
• Elections occur, but with significant restrictions on candidate competition and media coverage.

Presidential Elections

• Russians directly elect the chief executive to a six-year term in a two-ballot majority system.
• A candidate needs more than 50% of the vote to win; otherwise, a second round is held between the top two candidates.
• Elections since 2004 have been criticized for lacking competitiveness and civil liberties protections.

Duma Elections

• The Duma has 450 members.
• The system was changed from a mixed SMD and PR system to a fully PR system in 2005, and then changed again.
• A 7% threshold is required for a party to gain representation.
• In 2016, the United Russia Party won a supermajority due to election system reforms and campaign strategies.

Regional and Local Elections

• Russia is a federal system with 85 regional governments.
• After the Beslan school hostage crisis in 2004, Putin gained the power to dismiss and appoint regional governors.
• In 2012, regional elections for governor were restored, but with strict requirements for candidates.
• The system is viewed as the “municipal filter” by the opposition because it prevents real opposition from contending for office.
• Appointed acting governors automatically qualify for the ballot.

Referendum

• Voters are occasionally called upon to approve policies via referendum.
• Examples include the ratification of the 1993 Constitution and the Crimean referendum to join Russia in 2014.
• The Crimean referendum was criticized due to Russian military occupation and questionable turnout figures.

Political Parties

United Russia

• United Russia was formed in 2001 to support President Putin.
• It is a dominant party system, acting as a party of power to maintain control rather than implement ideology.
• It is based on a large patron-client network with corruption.

Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF)

• The CPRF was founded after Yeltsin banned the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
• It initially won the most seats in 1995 but has declined since Putin's rise.
• Most voters consist of elderly conservatives nostalgic for the Soviet era.
• The party is factionalized regarding traditional values versus market reforms.

Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR)

• Despite its name, the Liberal Democratic Party is fiercely nationalist and far-right.
• It aspires to create a new Russian Empire.

Actual Liberal Opposition Parties

• Russia’s liberal opposition parties are poorly organized and face challenges.
• Parties like Yabloko and Solidarnost have had difficulty qualifying for the ballot, getting media interviews, and organizing rallies.

Governmental Structure

The President

• The president of Russia is directly elected and serves a six-year term, limited to two consecutive terms with the possibility of running again after stepping down for a term.
• The president acts as the constitutional head of state, with wide reaching powers.
• Can appoint a prime minister with the consent of a majority of the Duma, but if the Duma rejects the president’s nominee three times, the president may dissolve the Duma and call for new Duma elections.
• May draft bills and submit them to the legislature for their consideration.
• May sign or veto any bills passed by both houses.
• Controls the policies of the state through decrees issued to cabinet ministers.
• Can suspend a law or regulation in one of Russia’s regional governments if he believes it is contrary to the Russian Constitution, laws or treaties of the Russian Federation, or a violation of human rights.
• Nominates candidates for the Federation Council to be approved or rejected by the regional legislatures.
• Nominates judges to serve on the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Arbitration Court with approval of the Federation Council.
• The president may grant a pardon or a reprieve for any person under federal law. He does not have this power over crimes at the regional level.

The Prime Minister

• The prime minister is appointed by the president with the approval of the Duma.
• The president may dismiss a prime minister at any time.
• He acts as the head of government according to the Russian Constitution, but exercises very little formal power.

The Duma

• The Duma is composed of 450 deputies who are chosen through an election.
• Their power is substantially limited due to the president’s decree and through powers vested to the cabinet.
• May impeach the president with a two-thirds vote in both the Duma and the Federation Council, in addition to a guilty conviction of treason in Russia’s Supreme Court.

The Federation Council

• Each of Russia’s 85 regional administrative units sends two members to the Federation Council for a total of 170 members.
• Functions as the other lawmaking body that passes bills along with the Duma, but the Duma may override the Federation Council and pass a bill without its approval with a two-thirds vote.
• It also possesses the power to approve changes to the borders among Russia’s regional units, approve the president’s decision to use armed forces outside of Russia, approve the president’s nomination of judges to Russia’s highest courts, and impeach the president in cooperation with the Duma and the Constitutional Court.

Regional Governments and Federalism

• Russia is a massive country with extensive geographic, ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity across its territory.
• But not all of Russia’s 85 federal subjects are equal in levels of local autonomy. This system, established in the constitution, is called asymmetric federalism.
  • The federal subjects of Russia fall mostly into one of two categories:
    • Oblasts.
      • Made up predominantly of ethnic Russians, with the ability to elect their own regional legislature and governor.
    • Republics.
      • More autonomous areas, with their own regional constitutions; a republic is usually the regional homeland of an ethnic minority group.