AP Psych A-Z

6 core virtues: Fundamental moral principles that guide individual behavior and promote positive interactions with others.
absolute threshold: The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for detection by the sensory system.
Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.
Achievement Test: An assessment that measures knowledge or proficiency in a subject area.
acquisition: The process of gaining or learning a new skill or knowledge.
Action potential: A temporary reversal of the electrical charge in a neuron that propagates signals along the axon.
activation synthesis theory: A theory proposing that dreams are the result of the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.
actor-observer bias: A cognitive bias where people tend to attribute their own actions to situational factors, while attributing others' actions to their personality traits.
adrenaline: A hormone released in response to stress that increases heart rate and energy, known as epinephrine.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Traumatic events that occur in childhood, which can have lasting impacts on health and well-being.
Agonist: A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response.
agreeableness: A personality trait characterized by being compassionate and cooperative.
algorithm: A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem.
All-or-none principle: The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all, with no partial activation.
Altruism: Selfless concern for the well-being of others.
Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline.
amygdala: A brain structure involved in emotion regulation and memory processing.
Anonymity: The state of being unknown or unacknowledged by others.
anorexia: An eating disorder characterized by an obsession with being excessively thin, often leading to self-starvation.
Antagonist: A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.
anterograde amnesia: The inability to form new memories after a brain injury or trauma.
anxious/ambivalent attachment: A type of insecure attachment characterized by anxiety and uncertainty in relationships.
aphasia: A language disorder that affects a person's ability to communicate.
Aptitude Test: An assessment intended to measure a person's ability to perform specific tasks or skills.
arousal theory: The theory that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal for performance.
Assimilation: integrating new experiences into existing schemas

accommodation: altering schemas to fit new information.
Attitude: A learned predisposition to respond positively or negatively to a particular object or person.
authoritarian parent: A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, often enforcing strict rules.
authoritative parent: A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and high demands, promoting independence while providing support.
Automatic processing: the unconscious encoding of information

effortful processing: the encoding of information that requires conscious attention and effort.
Autonomic nervous system: The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
avoidant attachment: A type of insecure attachment where individuals refrain from seeking comfort from caregivers.
Axon: The long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body.
Babinski reflex: A reflex action in infants where the toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked.
behavioral perspective: A psychological viewpoint that focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental factors that condition them.
belief perseverance: The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.
bimodal distribution: A probability distribution with two different modes, often indicating two peaks in data.
binocular cues: Depth cues that require both eyes, including retinal disparity (the difference in images between the two eyes) and convergence (the angle at which the eyes converge on a close object).
biological perspective: A viewpoint that emphasizes the influence of biological factors on behavior and mental processes.
biological preparedness: The inherent predisposition of organisms to learn certain associations more easily than others.
blind spot: An area on the retina where there are no photoreceptors, resulting in a lack of visual information in that spot.
blindsight: A condition in which individuals with damage to the primary visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness of them.
boredom susceptibility: A personality trait associated with the tendency to experience boredom easily and require stimulation.
bottom-up processing: Information processing that starts with sensory input and builds up to perception.
brain plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and change throughout life in response to experiences or damage.
broaden and build theory of emotion: A theory suggesting that positive emotions enhance an individual's resources and potential.
Broca’s area: A region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production and language processing.
bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging.
Bystander effect: A social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when others are present.
Cannon-Bard theory: A theory of emotion proposing that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously.
Case study: In-depth analysis of a single individual or group to understand complex issues.
Central nervous system: The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.
Central route to persuasion: A method of persuasion that involves presenting logical arguments and evidence.
cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain involved in higher-level functions, including perception, reasoning, and decision-making.
change blindness: A phenomenon where an individual fails to notice changes in a visual stimulus.
and inattentional blindness: A failure to notice a stimulus when focusing attention on another task.
circadian rhythm: The body’s internal clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles over a 24-hour period.
classical conditioning: A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.
cochlea: A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into electrical signals; includes the basilar membrane that helps with sound detection.
Cocktail Party Phenomenon/selective attention: The ability to focus on a specific conversation in a noisy environment while filtering out other stimuli.
Coercion: The practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats.
cognitive dissonance: The psychological discomfort one feels when holding two or more conflicting beliefs or values.
cognitive map: A mental representation of physical locations or environments.
cognitive perspective: A psychological viewpoint that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Collective unconscious: A concept by Carl Jung, referring to theories and memories shared among a culture or society.
concept: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people.
conditioned response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after classical conditioning.
conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, elicits a conditioned response.
conduction deafness: Hearing loss resulting from problems in the outer or middle ear that impede sound to the inner ear.
cones and fovea: Specialized photoreceptor cells in the retina; cones are responsible for color vision and high acuity, while the fovea is the area of sharpest vision.
Confidentiality: The ethical principle of protecting the privacy of individuals participating in research or therapy.
Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.
Conformity: Changing one’s behavior or beliefs to match those of others, which can be normative (to be accepted) or informational (to be correct).
Confounding variable: An extraneous variable that affects the dependent variable, potentially skewing the results of an experiment.
conscientiousness: A personality trait characterized by being diligent, organized, and disciplined.
consolidation theory: The hypothesis that memories become stable over time after being encoded.
constructive memory: The process of creating memories based on existing knowledge and beliefs, not just recollection.
context-dependent memory: The phenomenon where recall is improved when in the same context as the original learning.
continuous reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement where every desired response is reinforced immediately.
Control group: A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention being tested, used for comparison.
convenience sampling: A non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected based on availability and willingness to participate.
Convergent thinking: the ability to find a single, correct answer to a problem

divergent thinking: generating multiple possibilities or solutions.
corpus callosum: A band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them.
Correlation coefficient: A statistical measure that expresses the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
correlation: A relationship between variables, which can be positive (both increase or decrease together) or negative (one increases while the other decreases).
creativity: The ability to produce new and original ideas or solutions.
critical period: A specific time during development when an organism is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli.
cross-sectional study: A research method that compares subjects from different age groups at one point in time.
crystallized intelligence: The accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that remain stable or improve with age.
Debriefing: The process of informing research participants about the goals and results of the study after it has concluded.
defense mechanisms: Psychological strategies employed to cope with anxiety or stress by unconsciously distorting reality.
deindividuation: A psychological state characterized by a loss of self-awareness and personal accountability in groups.
dementia: A cognitive decline characterized by memory loss and diminished cognitive functions.
Dendrite: The branching extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
denial: A defense mechanism where an individual refuses to accept reality or truth.
Dependent variable (DV): The outcome variable that researchers measure in an experiment affected by changes in the independent variable.
depressants: Substances that reduce neural activity and slow down bodily functions, often used to relieve anxiety.
Descriptive Statistics: Statistical methods that summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset.
Dichromatism: is a condition in which an individual has two types of color receptors working monochromatism: when there is only one type of color receptor working
difference threshold (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that can be sensed.
Diffusion of responsibility: A social phenomenon in which individuals assume less responsibility to act when others are present.
Directionality Problem: A challenge in research where it is unclear whether A influences B or B influences A.
discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli; also refers to unfair treatment of individuals based on group characteristics.
displacement: A defense mechanism where an individual shifts emotional responses from a threatening target to a safer one.
display rules: Social norms that dictate the appropriate expressions of emotions in different contexts.
dispositional attribution: Attributing behavior to an individual's internal traits rather than external factors.
door-in-the-face phenomenon: A compliance technique where an initial large request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.
Dopamine: A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor function.
Double-blind procedure: An experimental design where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment to prevent bias.
drive-reduction theory: The theory that motivation arises from the need to reduce drives, such as hunger or thirst.
ecological systems theory: A framework that describes how different environmental systems influence human development.
Effect Size: A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon.
ego: The part of the personality that mediates between reality, the id, and the superego; involves conscious thought.
eidetic memory: The ability to retain a detailed image of a visual stimulus for a short period.
elaboration likelihood model: A theory of persuasion that identifies two routes: central (focusing on the message) and peripheral (focusing on superficial cues).
electroencephalogram (EEG): A test that detects electrical activity in the brain.
Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism: A developmental theory positing that adolescents experience heightened self-consciousness through an imaginary audience and personal fable.
emotion focused coping: A strategy that aims to reduce emotional distress rather than solve the problem causing it.
emotional stability (neuroticism): A personality trait that indicates a person’s consistent emotional health or instability.
Encoding: The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Endocrine system: A system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, regulating various bodily functions.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are associated with feelings of pleasure.
Erikson’s Psychosocial stage theory: A theory that outlines eight stages of psychosocial development across a person's lifespan.
ethnocentrism: The belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group.
Eugenics: The study of or belief in the possibility of improving the human race through selective breeding.
Eustress: positive stress that can motivate and enhance performance

distress: negative stress that can be harmful.
evolutionary perspective: A psychological viewpoint that explains behavior in terms of evolutionary adaptations.
Excitatory effect: The increase in the likelihood of a neuron firing due to excitatory neurotransmitters.
executive functions: Higher-order cognitive processes that include planning, reasoning, and problem-solving.
Experiment: A research method that involves manipulating one variable to determine its effect on another variable.
Experimental group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested.
experimenter bias: A type of bias that occurs when a researcher’s expectations influence the study's outcome.
explanatory style: Refers to how individuals explain events
optimistic style: the perceived outcome is unstable, as there is hope for change
pessimistic style: the perceived outcome is stable, as the person believes that no change will occur.
Explicit memory: involves conscious recall of information

implicit memory: involves unconscious retention of learned skills.
extinction: The process in which a conditioned response decreases or disappears over time due to lack of reinforcement.
Extrinsic motivation: is driven by external rewards

intrinsic motivation: arises from internal satisfaction or interest.
Factor analysis: A statistical method used to identify clusters of related variables in data.
factors in attraction: Various elements that influence how individuals are attracted to one another, such as physical appearance, similarity, and proximity.
false-consensus effect: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
falsifiable hypothesis: A hypothesis that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation.
fetal alcohol syndrome: A developmental disorder resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to physical and cognitive impairments.
fixed mindset: believes abilities are static

growth mindset: believes abilities can be developed through effort and learning.
fixed-interval schedule: A reinforcement schedule that provides rewards after a set period of time.
fixed-ratio schedule: A reinforcement schedule that provides rewards after a set number of responses.
fluid intelligence: The ability to think logically and solve novel problems, independent of acquired knowledge.
Flynn Effect: The observed rise in IQ scores over time in populations.
fMRI: Functional magnetic resonance imaging, a technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
foot-in-the-door phenomenon: A compliance strategy that involves starting with a small request before making a larger one.
forgetting curve: A graph that shows the decline of memory retention over time.
framing: The way in which information is presented and how it influences perceptions and decisions.
frequency theory: A theory of pitch perception proposing that the frequency of sound waves corresponds to the frequency of nerve impulses sent to the brain.
frontal lobes: The portions of the brain located at the front, crucial for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, planning, and voluntary movement.
functional fixedness: A cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use an object in a new way.
fundamental attribution error: The tendency to attribute others' behaviors to their character or personality while ignoring situational factors.
GABA: Gamma-aminobutyric acid, a neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity and reduces anxiety.
gambler’s fallacy: The belief that past random events affect the probabilities of future random events.
Gardner - Multiple Intelligences: A theory proposing that there are several distinct forms of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, and others.
Gate Control Theory: A theory that explains how pain is perceived, suggesting that a gate in the spinal cord can open or close to either allow or block pain signals.
Gestalt Rules: A set of principles in perception that describe how we organize visual elements into groups or wholes.
ghrelin: A hormone that stimulates appetite and promotes food intake.
Glial cells: Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support and protect neurons.
glutamate: A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory and learning.
grasping reflex: An involuntary reflex in infants where they grab objects placed in their hands.
gratitude: A positive emotional response that involves recognizing and appreciating the goodness in one's life.
group polarization: The tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's prevailing opinions.
group think: A phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a decision-making group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making.
Gustation and taste receptors: The sensory process of tasting, involving receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus.
habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to it.
hallucinogens: Substances that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, leading to hallucinations.
halo effect: The cognitive bias where the perception of one positive characteristic leads to biased judgments of other characteristics.
Harry Harlow’s contact comfort theory: An attachment theory suggesting that infants bond with caregivers not solely for sustenance, but for comfort and emotional support.
heuristic: availability and representativeness: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making; availability heuristic relies on immediate examples, while representativeness heuristic relies on how similar something is to a prototype.
higher-order/ second-order conditioning: A form of classical conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned response.
hindbrain: The brain region that includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; responsible for vital functions, movement, and coordination.
Hindsight Bias: The common tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.
hippocampus: A brain structure critical for forming new memories.
homeostasis: The body’s tendency to maintain a stable internal environment.
Hormones: Chemical messengers secreted by glands in the endocrine system that regulate various bodily functions.
humanistic perspective: A psychological approach that emphasizes human potential and self-actualization.
hypnagogic sensations: Sensory experiences that occur while falling asleep, often described as jerking or feeling of falling.
hypothalamus: A brain region that regulates bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sleep.
hypothalamus and hunger: The hypothalamus plays a key role in regulating hunger and satiety signals within the body.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Iconic vs. Echoic Memory: Iconic memory refers to visual sensory memory lasting a few seconds, while echoic memory refers to auditory sensory memory lasting slightly longer.
id: The part of the psyche that contains innate drives and desires, according to Freud.
imagination inflation: The phenomenon where imagining an event leads to an increased confidence that the event actually occurred.
implicit attitudes: Unconscious beliefs or feelings about a group or individual that influence behavior.
Imprinting: A rapid learning process during a critical period where young animals form attachments to caregivers or objects.
in group bias: The tendency to favor members of one’s own group over those in other groups.
Incentive Theory: A theory of motivation proposing that individuals are motivated by external incentives and rewards.
Independent variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Individualism: emphasizes personal autonomy and self-interest

collectivism: emphasizes group goals and social harmony.
industrial-organizational psychologists: Psychologists who study and apply psychological principles to workplace environments.
infantile amnesia: The inability of adults to remember events from early childhood.
Inferential statistics: Statistical methods used to make inferences or predictions about a population based on sample data.
Inferiority complex: A psychological condition where an individual feels inadequate or inferior to others.
Informed Consent: The process of ensuring participants understand the nature and risks of a study before agreeing to participate.
Inhibitory effect: A decrease in the likelihood of a neuron firing due to inhibitory neurotransmitters.
insight: A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
insight learning: A type of learning that occurs through the sudden understanding of how to solve a problem without trial and error.
insomnia: A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep.
instinctive drift: The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctual behaviors that interfere with learned behaviors.
Instincts: Innate, typically fixed patterns of behavior in animals and humans.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A measure of a person's intellectual abilities compared to others.
internal locus of control: indicates that individuals believe they can control their own fate through their actions

external locus of control: suggests they believe their fate is controlled by external factors.
Interneurons: Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.
Introversion: refers to a personality trait characterized by focus on internal thoughts and feelings

extroversion: is characterized by a focus on external interactions and socialization.
IRB: Institutional Review Board, a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical treatment of participants.
James-Lange theory: A theory of emotion suggesting that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience.
just world bias: The cognitive tendency to believe that the world is just and that individuals get what they deserve.
kinesthetic sense: The awareness of body position and movement in space.
Kohlberg’s stages of morality: A theory of moral development outlining stages through which individuals progress in ethical reasoning.
latent learning: Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement or behavior change, often revealed when incentivized later.
Law of effect: A principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while those followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
learned helplessness: A condition resulting from repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative events, leading to a sense of powerlessness.
Learned Taste Aversions: A learned avoidance of certain foods that are associated with illness or discomfort.
Learning: The process of acquiring new, or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences.
lens: A transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina, involved in the process of accommodation (changing shape to focus on objects at various distances).
leptin: A hormone involved in regulating energy balance and inhibiting hunger.
lesioning: A research method involving the intentional damage to a brain area to study its effects on behavior.
Lev Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development: The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement.
Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory: A theory defining three types of conflict: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance.
limbic system: A set of brain structures involved in emotion regulation, memory, and motivation.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: The hypothesis that language influences thought and perception.
long-term memory: A component of memory that can store vast amounts of information over extended periods, including episodic (specific events), semantic (facts and knowledge), and procedural (skills).
long-term potentiation: A process that strengthens synapses based on recent patterns of activity, believed to be a biological mechanism underlying learning and memory.
longitudinal study: A research method that follows the same subjects over a period of time to observe changes.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: A motivational theory comprising five levels of human needs, often depicted as a pyramid.
maturation: The biological growth processes that occur with age, enabling orderly changes in behavior.
melatonin: A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles, increasing at night and decreasing during the day.
memory consolidation: The process of stabilizing a memory trace after the initial acquisition.
menarche and spermarche: The onset of menstruation in females and the onset of sperm production in males, respectively.
menopause: The time in a woman's life when menstrual cycles permanently cease.
mental set: A tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences.
Mere exposure effect: The phenomenon where individuals develop a preference for stimuli simply because they have been exposed to them multiple times.
Meta-analysis: A statistical technique that combines and analyzes data from multiple studies on the same topic to arrive at overall conclusions.
midbrain: A part of the brain that plays a key role in processing visual and auditory information and coordinating movement.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): A psychological assessment tool used to evaluate personality traits and psychopathology.
misinformation effect: The phenomenon in which a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information.
mnemonic device: A learning technique that aids information retention through patterns, acronyms, or visualization, including methods like loci and chunking.
monocular cues: Visual depth cues that can be perceived with one eye, including relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition.
mood-congruent memory: The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood.
moro reflex: An infant reflex characterized by spreading arms and legs when startled.
Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in language

phonemes: the smallest units of sound.
Motivation: The internal processes that activate, direct, and sustain goal-oriented behavior.
motor cortex: The part of the cerebral cortex responsible for planning and executing voluntary movements.
motor development: The progression of physical skills and abilities during a child's life.
Motor neurons (Efferent): Neurons that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles or glands to initiate action.
Multiple Sclerosis: A disease that affects the central nervous system, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.
myasthenia gravis: An autoimmune neuromuscular disorder leading to weakness in the skeletal muscles.
narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.
Naturalistic observation: A research method involving the observation of subjects in their natural environment without interference.
Nature vs Nurture: A debate concerning the relative influences of genetic inheritance and environmental factors on human development.
Nearsightedness (myopia): is the inability to see distant objects clearly

farsightedness (hyperopia): is the inability to see nearby objects clearly.
negative punishment: The removal of a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.
negative reinforcement: The removal of an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior.
neural transmission: The process by which nerve impulses are transmitted along the nerve cells (neurons).
Neuron: The basic unit of the nervous system that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.
norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, alertness, and attention.
Normal (Bell) curve: A symmetrical distribution of data, where most values cluster around the mean.
NREM Sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep, which encompasses all sleep stages except REM.
obedience: The act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure.
occipital lobes: The regions of the brain responsible for processing visual information.
Olfactory sense and pheromones: The sense of smell (olfaction) and chemical signals (pheromones) that can influence social behaviors and attraction.
one trial conditioning: A learning phenomenon where a single exposure to a stimulus is sufficient to produce a conditioned response.
openness to experience: A personality characteristic associated with imagination, curiosity, and openness to new experiences.
Operant conditioning: A learning process through which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences, including reinforcement and punishment.
Operational definition: A definition of a variable in terms of how it will be measured or manipulated in a study.
opioids: A class of drugs that include both prescription pain relievers and illegal drugs, known for their pain-relieving effects and potential for addiction.
opponent-process theory and afterimages: A theory of color vision asserting that color perception is controlled by opposing pairs of colors and that afterimages are the result of this process.
optic nerve: The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
out group homogeneity bias: The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as being more similar to each other than they actually are.
overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs or judgments.
oxytocin: A hormone involved in bonding, trust, and social behaviors.
Parasympathetic division: The part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and slows down bodily functions.
parietal lobes: The brain regions responsible for processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain.
partial reinforcement effect: The phenomenon where behaviors are more resistant to extinction after being reinforced intermittently rather than continuously.
Peer review: A process where research is evaluated by experts in the field before being published to ensure quality and validity.
percentile rank: A score indicating the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a specific value.
perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to form a meaningful understanding.
perceptual constancy: The perception of an object's size, shape, and color as unchanging despite changes in perspective or lighting.
Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another due to expectations or past experiences.
Peripheral nervous system: The part of the nervous system that includes all nerve fibers outside the central nervous system.
peripheral route to persuasion: A method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues, such as attractiveness or emotional appeal, rather than logical arguments.
permissive parent: A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, allowing significant freedom to children.
Personality: The unique and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, and emotions in an individual.
Personality inventories/self-report inventories: Tools used to assess an individual’s personality traits and characteristics through self-reported responses.
phantom limb sensation: The sensation experienced by amputees where they feel that their missing limb is still present and may even feel pain.
Piaget’s Cognitive stage theory: A theory proposing that children progress through four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Pituitary gland: The master gland of the endocrine system that regulates other glands and hormone production.
place theory: A theory of pitch perception suggesting that different frequencies of sound stimulate specific locations of the cochlea.
Placebo Effect: The phenomenon where a person experiences a perceived improvement in condition due to believing they are receiving treatment, even if the treatment is inactive.
Pluralistic ignorance: A situation where members of a group erroneously believe that others in the group hold different beliefs or behaviors than their own.
Population: The entire group of individuals that researchers are interested in studying.
positive psychology: A branch of psychology focused on positive aspects of human experience, such as happiness and fulfillment.
positive punishment: The introduction of a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior, often through the application of aversive consequences.
positive reinforcement: The addition of a rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
post traumatic growth: The positive psychological change experienced after a traumatic event.
Preconscious: refers to thoughts that are not currently in awareness but can be easily retrieved

unconscious: refers to thoughts that are not accessible to awareness.
prefrontal cortex: The front part of the cerebral cortex involved in complex behaviors, decision-making, and social interactions.
prejudice: An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular group.
primary reinforcers: Stimuli that are naturally rewarding, such as food or water, which satisfy biological needs.
Primary sex characteristics: refer to reproductive organs

secondary sex characteristics: include physical traits that develop during puberty, such as breast development or facial hair.
proactive interference: A memory phenomenon where prior learning interferes with the recall of new information.
Problem focused coping: A coping strategy that aims to tackle the problem causing stress head-on rather than just dealing with its emotional impact.
projection: A defense mechanism where an individual attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings onto someone else.
Projective tests: Psychological assessments that reveal personality characteristics through responses to ambiguous stimuli.
prosopagnosia: A condition characterized by an inability to recognize familiar faces, often referred to as face blindness.
prospective memory: The ability to remember to perform an action in the future, such as taking medication.
prototype: The ideal or most representative example of a concept or category.
psychoanalytic perspective: A psychological approach focusing on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences as influencers of behavior.
puberty: The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction.
punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
qualitative research: Research that focuses on gathering in-depth, open-ended responses to understand human behavior and motivations, including structured interviews.
Quantitative Research: Research that focuses on quantifying data and statistical analysis, including the use of Likert scales for measurement.
Random assignment: The process of assigning participants to different groups in a way that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group, which helps control for extraneous variables.
random selection: A sampling method where participants are selected randomly from the population, ensuring everyone has an equal chance of being included.
rationalization: A defense mechanism where an individual explains an unacceptable behavior or feeling in rational or logical terms, avoiding true explanations.
reaction formation: A defense mechanism where an individual behaves in a way opposite to their unwanted feelings to hide them.
recall vs. recognition: Recall is the retrieval of information without cues, while recognition is identifying previously learned information when presented with it.
Reciprocal determinism: A concept that states behavior is influenced by personal factors and the environment, and these factors all interact in a reciprocal manner.
reciprocity norm: A social rule that suggests individuals should repay others for what they have received.
reflex arc: The neural pathway involved in reflex actions, typically involving a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron.
Refractory period: A brief period after the firing of a neuron when it cannot fire again.
regression: A defense mechanism where an individual reverts to behaviors characteristic of an earlier stage of development when faced with stress.
Maintenance rehearsal: involves repeated practice of information to keep it in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal: involves processing information in meaningful ways to aid long-term retention.
reinforcement: A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Reliability: The consistency of a measurement or assessment over time or different situations.
REM rebound: The increased duration of REM sleep following a period of deprivation from REM sleep.
REM sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreams.
REM sleep behavior disorder: A sleep disorder where individuals act out their dreams due to a lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep.
replication: The process of repeating a study to confirm its findings and ensure reliability.
repression: A defense mechanism that involves unconsciously blocking unwanted memories or feelings from awareness.
resilience: The ability to adapt and recover from adversity or stress effectively.
Resting potential: The electrical charge difference across the neuronal membrane when a neuron is not firing.
restoration theory: A theory suggesting that sleep serves to restore and rejuvenate the body and brain.
reticular activating system: A part of the brainstem that is involved in wakefulness and the sleep-wake cycle.
retina: The light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye that converts light into neural signals.
retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.
retroactive interference: A memory phenomenon where new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information.
retrograde amnesia: The loss of memories that were formed before the onset of a condition or trauma.
reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them after signaling.
reuptake inhibitors: Medications that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability in the synapse.
rods: Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions.
rooting reflex: An automatic response seen in infants when they turn their head toward a stimulus applied to their cheek.
Rorschach inkblot test: A projective psychological test consisting of inkblots, used to assess personality characteristics and emotional functioning.
Sample: A subset of individuals from a larger population used in research.
scaffolding (Vygotsky): A teaching method that provides support to a learner to help enhance their understanding and skills until they can function independently.
scatterplot: A graphical representation of two variables plotted on a coordinate plane to show their relationship.
Schachter’s two-factor theory: A theory of emotion suggesting that emotion is the result of physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.
Schema: A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.
Scientific method: A systematic approach to inquiry that involves hypothesizing, experimenting, and analyzing data to draw conclusions.
secondary reinforcers: Stimuli that have become reinforcing by being associated with primary reinforcers, such as money or praise.
secure attachment: A strong emotional bond characterized by trust and a sense of safety in relationships.
Self-actualization: The realization of one’s potential and the achievement of personal growth and fulfillment.
Self-concept: The perception or image of oneself, encompassing beliefs, feelings, and thoughts about one’s identity.
self-determination theory: A theory of motivation that emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering motivation.
Self-efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish a task or achieve a goal.
self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that causes itself to be true due to the behavior it generates.
self-serving bias: The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to external factors.
semicircular canals: Structures in the inner ear responsible for maintaining balance and spatial orientation.
sensation: The process of detecting and interpreting sensory stimuli from the environment.
sensation seeking theory: A theory proposing that individuals are motivated to seek out varied and novel experiences for optimal emotional and cognitive functioning.
sensory adaptation: The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant exposure to that stimulus.
sensory memory: The shortest-term element of memory, responsible for retaining sensory information for a few seconds.
Sensory neurons (Afferent): Neurons that carry sensory information from the senses to the central nervous system.
serial position effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items, encompassing primacy (better recall of first items) and recency (better recall of last items).
Serotonin: A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite control.
Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome: A three-stage response to stress, including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
shaping: A process in operant conditioning in which successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced.
short-term memory: The capacity for holding a small amount of information for a short period.
signal detection theory: A theory that explains how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus among background noise.
Single-Blind Procedure: An experimental design in which participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo.
situational attribution: Attributing a person's behavior to external factors, such as the environment or situation.
Skewed: Positive and Negative: Terms describing the asymmetrical distribution of data; positive skew shows a longer tail on the right, while negative skew shows a longer tail on the left.
sleep apnea: A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep.
social clock: The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
social comparison: The process of evaluating oneself in relation to others to gain a better understanding of oneself.
Social Desirability bias: The tendency for respondents to give answers that are socially acceptable rather than their true thoughts or feelings.
Social facilitation: refers to the improved performance on tasks in the presence of others

social impairment: refers to the decline in performance on tasks in the presence of others when the task is complex or unfamiliar.
social influence theory: A theory that examines how individuals change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in response to social interactions.
social learning theory/observational learning/modeling: A theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others' behaviors and the consequences that follow.
social loafing: The phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working in a group than when working individually.
social norms: Unwritten rules or expectations about how to behave in a particular social context.
social trap: A situation where individuals or groups prioritize their personal gain over the collective good, leading to undesirable outcomes for all.
social-cultural perspective: An approach that emphasizes the influence of culture and social factors on behavior and mental processes.
social-responsibility norm: The expectation that individuals will help those dependent on them, particularly in situations of need.
Soma: The cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus and supporting organelles.
Somatic nervous system: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary bodily movements through skeletal muscles.
somatosensory cortex: The brain area responsible for processing sensory information from the body, including touch and proprioception.
somnambulism: A sleep disorder commonly referred to as sleepwalking, where individuals engage in behaviors while in a state of sleep.
sound localization: The ability to determine the location of a sound source in the environment.
source amnesia: The inability to remember where or how one learned information, leading to misattribution.
Spearman – The “g” factor: A theory proposing that a single factor, general intelligence (g), underlies specific mental abilities.
split-brain research: Studies involving individuals with severed corpus callosums to understand the lateralization of brain function.
spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.
stages of identity development: A framework outlining the progression of identity formation, including exploration and commitment.
stages of language development: A series of phases that children go through in the acquisition of language, typically beginning with babbling.
Standard deviation: A statistical measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.
standardization: The process of ensuring that tests are administered and scored consistently across different individuals or groups.
state-dependent memory: The phenomenon where recall is improved when an individual is in the same physical or emotional state as when the memory was formed.
Statistical significance: A measure of the likelihood that a relationship observed in data is not due to chance.
stereotype: An overgeneralized belief about a particular category of people.
stereotype lift: The phenomenon where individuals perform better on tasks when they are reminded of a positive stereotype related to their group.
stereotype threat: The risk that individuals might confirm negative stereotypes about their group, impacting their performance.
stimulants: Substances that increase neural activity and speed up bodily functions, often associated with increased alertness and energy.
stimulus discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond differently to each.
stimulus generalization: The tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
storage: The process of retaining information over time within our memory systems.
subjective well being: A self-reported measure of well-being and satisfaction regarding one's life and circumstances.
sublimation: A defense mechanism whereby individuals channel unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.
substance p: A neurotransmitter that plays a role in pain perception and signaling within the nervous system.
sucking reflex: An involuntary reflex seen in infants where they instinctively suck on objects placed in their mouths.
sunk-cost fallacy: A cognitive bias where individuals continue a behavior or endeavor based on previously invested resources despite current costs.
superego: In Freud's theory, the component of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment.
superordinate goals: Goals that require cooperation between groups or individuals to achieve, promoting positive relations.
superstitious behavior: Behavior learned through the false belief that a behavior is related to and outcomes relates to a reinforcement.
Survey: A research method used to gather data from a large group of respondents through questions or questionnaires.
Sympathetic division: The part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'fight or flight' response, mobilizing the body in times of stress.
Synapse: The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to allow communication.
Synesthesia: A neurological condition where stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic experiences in a second sensory pathway.
Syntax: refers to the structure of sentences

semantics: refers to the meanings of words and phrases.
temperament: The biologically-based personality traits that influence behavior and emotional responses.
temporal lobes: The regions of the brain associated with processing auditory information and memory formation.
tend and befriend response: A behavioral response to stress characterized by seeking social support and nurturing others.
Teratogens: Substances that can cause malformation in a developing fetus when exposed during pregnancy.
Terminal buttons: The small knobs at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
testing effect: The enhanced memory retention that occurs when information is actively retrieved, as opposed to simply rereading it.
thalamus: The brain structure that relays sensory information and regulates sleep and alertness.
The Big Five Theory: A personality model outlining five core dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
The levels of processing model: A theory suggesting that deeper levels of processing improve the likelihood of recall, focusing on how information is processed.
the spacing effect: describes how information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out rather than crammed.
massed practice: a learning technique that involves cramming all study materials into a single session, often leading to poor retention compared to spaced practice.
distributed practice: a learning strategy that involves spreading out study sessions over time, promoting better retention and understanding of material.
The Three Box or multi-store model: A framework for understanding memory, proposing three distinct stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
The working memory model: A model that describes memory as a system comprising multiple parts responsible for processing and storing information simultaneously.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A projective test that uses ambiguous images to elicit storytelling and reveal an individual's underlying motives, concerns, and personality.
theory of mind: The ability to attribute mental states, beliefs, and intentions to oneself and others, understanding that others may have different thoughts.
tip of the tongue phenomenon: The feeling of knowing a word or name but being unable to retrieve it at that moment.
top-down processing: Information processing that begins with the higher-level mental processes and works down to the sensory input.
trait: A characteristic pattern of behavior or a predisposition to feel and act in a particular way.
Trait theories: Theories that focus on the identification and measurement of personality traits.
Transduction: The process of converting sensory stimuli into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain.
trichromatic theory: A theory of color vision proposing that the three types of cones in the retina correspond to three primary colors.
Twin Studies: Research studies that involve identical or fraternal twins to understand the effects of genetics and environment on behavior.
Types of reliability: (split-half, test-retest): Types of reliability measurements that ensure consistent results across different methods of assessment, such as splitting the test into two parts or retesting after a certain period.
Types of validity: (construct, predictive): Types of validity that assess whether a test measures what it claims to measure (construct) or can accurately predict future outcomes (predictive).
unconditional positive regard: An attitude of acceptance toward another person regardless of their behavior or feelings, often emphasized in humanistic psychology.
unconditioned response (UR): A reflexive response that occurs naturally in reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.
Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
variable-interval schedule: A reinforcement schedule that provides rewards at unpredictable time intervals.
variable-ratio schedule: A reinforcement schedule that provides rewards after an unpredictable number of responses, often leading to high rates of response.
vestibular sense: The sense responsible for balance and spatial orientation, located in the inner ear.
vicarious conditioning: Learning through the observation of the consequences of others' behaviors rather than through direct experience.
volley theory: A theory of auditory perception that suggests that groups of neurons can fire in volleys to encode sound frequency.
Wavelength: the distance between successive peaks of a wave

amplitude: the height of the sound wave, affecting loudness.
Weber’s Law: A principle stating that the just noticeable difference (JND) between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.
Wernicke’s area: A brain region located in the temporal lobe associated with language

Yerkes-Dodson Law: A principle that describes the relationship between arousal and performance, indicating that optimal performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal, while both low and high levels can lead to decreased performance.