Introduction to Psychology Flashcards

1.1 What Is Psychology?

• Etymology of Psychology:

  • Derived from Greek words: psyche (soul or mind) and ology (scientific study of).

  • Originally, psyche represented the human soul's triumph over life's misfortunes in the pursuit of happiness and understanding.

  • Today, psychology is defined as the scientific study of the mind and behavior, encompassing both conscious and unconscious processes.

• Definition of Psychology:

  • The scientific study of the mind, including thoughts, feelings, and motivations.

  • The scientific study of behavior, observable actions, and reactions of organisms.

  • Expanded definition: the scientific study of the mind and behavior, integrating mental processes with observable actions.

• Scientific Method:

  • Psychology uses the scientific method to acquire knowledge, ensuring systematic and empirical investigation of phenomena.

  • A researcher proposes a tentative explanation, called a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

  • A hypothesis should fit into the context of a scientific theory, which is a broad explanation or a framework supported by extensive evidence and used to generate new hypotheses.

  • The researcher makes observations or conducts experiments using carefully controlled conditions to test the hypothesis's validity.

  • Results are analyzed using statistical methods and published in peer-reviewed journals for others to check, critique, or build on, contributing to the cumulative nature of scientific knowledge.

  • Explanations must be testable (perceivable and measurable), allowing for empirical verification or falsification.

  • Science generally deals with matter and energy, focusing on observable and quantifiable aspects of the natural world, though psychology extends to subjective experiences and behaviors.

• Empiricism:

  • The scientific method is a form of empiricism, emphasizing the importance of evidence gathered through observation and experimentation.

  • An empirical method acquires knowledge through observation and experimentation, rather than relying solely on logical argument, intuition, or authority.

• Psychology as a Discipline:

  • Became accepted as an academic discipline in the late 1800s, marking a shift from philosophical speculation to empirical investigation.

  • Before, the mind was studied under philosophy, focusing on introspection and theoretical reasoning rather than empirical research.

  • Behavior is rooted in biology, connecting psychology to natural sciences through the study of the brain, nervous system, and genetics.

  • Human interaction influences behavior, making psychology a social science, exploring how individuals are shaped by their relationships, culture, and society.

• Merits of a Psychology Education:

  • Students want to learn about themselves and why they act as they do, gaining insights into human nature and behavior.

  • Psychology is a popular major in the U.S., reflecting its relevance to understanding personal and social issues.

  • Develops critical thinking skills and training in the scientific method, fostering analytical and problem-solving abilities.

  • Critical thinking is the active application of skills to understand and evaluate information, involving skepticism, recognizing biases, logical thinking, asking questions, and making observations to form well-reasoned judgments.

  • Improves communication skills, both written and oral, through report writing, presentations, and interpersonal interactions.

  • Increases scientific literacy, enabling individuals to understand and evaluate scientific information and its implications.

  • Understand the complex factors that shape behavior, including biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.

  • Appreciate the interaction of biology, environment, and experiences in shaping thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

  • Learn basic principles that guide how we think and behave, such as cognitive biases, social influences, and motivational factors.

  • Recognize diversity across individuals and cultures, promoting cultural competence and sensitivity to individual differences.

1.2 History of Psychology

• Founders of Psychology:

  • Wilhelm Wundt and William James are credited as founders of psychology as a science and academic discipline distinct from philosophy, establishing psychology as a field of empirical inquiry.

• Wundt and Structuralism:

  • Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): German scientist, the first person referred to as a psychologist, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a separate discipline.

  • Published Principles of Physiological Psychology in 1873, outlining his vision for psychology as the study of conscious experience.

  • Viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, emphasizing the analysis of mental processes into basic elements.

  • Goal: identify components of consciousness (sensations, feelings, images) and how they combine to form complex mental processes.

  • Used introspection ("internal perception") to examine one's conscious experience objectively under specific experimental conditions, requiring systematic self-observation.

  • Requirements for introspection: trained observers who could report their experiences without bias, repeatable stimuli to ensure consistency.

  • Structuralism: An attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind by breaking it down into its constituent elements.

  • Established the first psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879, a pivotal event in the history of psychology.

  • Conducted experiments on reaction times, measuring the time it took participants to respond to stimuli to understand the speed of mental processes.

• James and Functionalism:

  • William James (1842–1910): First American psychologist, who played a key role in establishing psychology in the United States.

  • Espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate, focusing on the purpose and function of mental processes.

  • Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, emphasizing the adaptive significance of behavior and mental processes.

  • Functionalism: Focused on the function of behavior in the world and how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment, shifting the focus from the structure of the mind to its adaptive functions.

  • Interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than its individual parts, taking a holistic view of mental processes.

  • Used introspection and more objective measures, including recording devices and examinations of concrete products of mental activities, anatomy, and physiology, broadening the scope of psychological inquiry.

• Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory:

  • Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Austrian neurologist, the founder of psychoanalytic theory.

  • Fascinated by patients suffering from "hysteria" and neurosis, exploring the psychological roots of mental disorders.

  • Theorized that problems arose from the unconscious mind (feelings and urges we are unaware of), suggesting that hidden conflicts drive behavior.

  • Accessing the unconscious was crucial to resolving patients' problems, requiring techniques to bring unconscious material to awareness.

  • Methods to access the unconscious: dream analysis, first words that come to mind (free association), slips of the tongue (Freudian slips).

  • Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person's unconscious and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

  • Influential in clinical psychology for decades, shaping therapeutic approaches and understanding of mental disorders.

  • Method of psychoanalysis (patient talking about experiences) was popularized by Freud, emphasizing the importance of therapeutic dialogue.

  • Many of Freud’s ideas are controversial, including the Oedipus complex and psychosexual stages.

  • More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective, such as psychodynamic therapy.

• Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology:

  • Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967):

  • German psychologists who immigrated to the United States in the early 20th century due to the rise of Nazism.

  • Introduced Gestalt principles to American psychologists, influencing the study of perception and problem-solving.

  • Gestalt: "whole;" emphasizes that sensory experience is perceived in combinations, rejecting the idea of breaking down experience into separate elements.

  • Contradicted Wundt’s ideas of structuralism, arguing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

  • Forced to abandon much of their work in the United States due to the dominance of behaviorism.

  • Gestalt principles are still influential today in areas such as visual perception and cognitive therapy.

  • Considering the human individual as a whole became an important foundation in humanistic theory, emphasizing the importance of subjective experience and personal growth.

  • Ideas have continued to influence research on sensation and perception, particularly in understanding how we organize sensory information.

• Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism:

  • Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936): Russian physiologist, known for his work on classical conditioning.

  • Studied conditioned reflexes (an animal or human produces a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus), demonstrating how associations are formed between stimuli and responses.

  • Pavlov's “classical conditioning” is only one form of learning behavior studied by behaviorists, involving involuntary responses to stimuli.

  • John B. Watson (1878–1958): Influential American psychologist, who promoted behaviorism as a dominant approach in psychology.

  • Believed objective analysis of the mind was impossible, rejecting introspection as a scientific method.

  • Focused on observable behavior and trying to bring that behavior under control through conditioning and learning principles.

  • Behaviorism: The approach of observing and controlling behavior, emphasizing the role of environmental factors in shaping actions.

  • A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism, exploring how nature and nurture interact to influence behavior.

  • Commonly used animals in experiments to study basic learning processes.

  • Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, shaping research methods and theories of learning.

  • Largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline by emphasizing objective measurement and experimentation.

  • Used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat a range of mental disorders.

  • Behavior modification is commonly used in classroom settings to promote desired behaviors.

  • Led to research on environmental influences on human behavior, highlighting the impact of surroundings on actions.

  • B. F. Skinner (1904–1990): American psychologist, known for his work on operant conditioning.

  • Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences, emphasizing the role of reinforcement and punishment.

  • Spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior, shaping actions through rewards and penalties.

  • Developed an operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) to study animal behavior in controlled conditions.

  • Skinner’s focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that has waned somewhat since the growth of research in cognitive psychology.

  • Conditioned learning is still used in human behavioral modification to change habits and behaviors.

• Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism:

  • Some psychologists were uncomfortable with the limited perspectives of behaviorism and psychoanalysis, seeking a more holistic and positive view of human nature.

  • Objected to the pessimism and determinism of Freud, rejecting the idea that unconscious conflicts inevitably drive behavior.

  • Disliked the reductionism of behaviorism, arguing that it oversimplified human experience by focusing solely on observable behavior.

  • Humanism: Emphasizes potential for good that is innate to all humans, focusing on personal growth, self-actualization, and the achievement of one's full potential.

  • Abraham Maslow (1908–1970): American psychologist, known for his hierarchy of needs.

  • Known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior, ranging from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

  • Higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior once lower-level needs are met, suggesting a progression of human motivations.

  • Highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, involving the realization of one's full potential and the pursuit of personal growth.

  • Carl Rogers (1902–1987): American psychologist, known for his client-centered therapy.

  • Emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people, focusing on the inherent capacity for growth and self-direction.

  • Used client-centered therapy, creating a supportive and non-directive therapeutic environment.

  • Therapist needed to display unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy to facilitate client growth.

  • People were more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues, emphasizing the client's autonomy and self-determination.

  • Humanism has been influential to psychology as a whole, promoting a more positive and holistic view of human nature.

• The Cognitive Revolution:

  • By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, challenging the dominance of behaviorism.

  • Revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry, emphasizing the importance of mental processes in understanding behavior.

  • Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology, marking the formal beginning of cognitive psychology as a distinct field.

  • Noam Chomsky (1928–): An American linguist, known for his critique of behaviorism and his contributions to cognitive psychology.

  • Believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior.

  • Psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others, leading to interdisciplinary collaborations to study the mind and behavior comprehensively.

Feminist Psychology

• Psychology developed with the biases inherent in Western, white, and male academics; this skewed the understanding of human behavior by overlooking diverse perspectives.

• Women, members of ethnic minorities, and individuals with sexual orientations other than heterosexual had difficulties entering the field of psychology and therefore influencing its development, leading to underrepresentation and marginalization of diverse voices.

• Until the 1960s, the science of psychology was largely a “womanless” psychology (Crawford & Marecek, 1989), meaning that few women were able to practice psychology, so they had little influence on what was studied; this resulted in research topics and methodologies that were not representative of women's experiences.

• An article by Naomi Weisstein, first published in 1968 (Weisstein, 1993), stimulated a feminist revolution in psychology by presenting a critique of psychology as a science, challenging its objectivity and highlighting its gender biases.

• Crawford & Marecek (1989) identify several feminist approaches to psychology that can be described as feminist psychology that include re-evaluating and discovering the contributions of women to the history of psychology, studying psychological gender differences, and questioning the male bias present across the practice of the scientific approach to knowledge; these approaches aim to create a more inclusive and equitable understanding of psychology.

Multicultural Psychology

• Culture has important impacts on individuals and social psychology, yet the effects of culture on psychology are under-studied.

• There is a risk that psychological theories and data derived from white, American settings could be assumed to apply to individuals and social groups from other cultures and this is unlikely to be true (Betancourt & López, 1993); this assumption can lead to misunderstandings and ineffective interventions.

• In 1920, Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States. Sumner established a psychology degree program at Howard University, leading to the education of a new generation of African American psychologists (Black, Spence, and Omari, 2004).

• Much of the work of early African American psychologists (and a general focus of much work in first half of the 20th century in psychology in the United States) was dedicated to testing and intelligence testing in particular (Black et al., 2004); this focus aimed to address issues of racial bias and inequality in educational and employment settings.

• The American Psychological Association has several ethnically based organizations for professional psychologists that facilitate interactions among members, providing support and networking opportunities for psychologists from diverse backgrounds.

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

• Contemporary Psychology:

  • A diverse field influenced by historical perspectives, integrating various schools of thought and research methods.

  • Reflective of this is the diversity of the American Psychological Association (APA), encompassing a wide range of interests and orientations.

  • The APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the United States, promoting the advancement of psychology as a science, profession, and means of promoting health, education, and human welfare.

  • There are 56 divisions within the APA, representing a wide variety of specialties, reflecting the breadth and depth of contemporary psychology.

• Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology:

  • Biopsychology explores how our biology influences our behavior, examining the relationship between the nervous system, hormones, genetics, and behavior.

  • Combines research strategies of psychologists and physiologists to understand how the nervous system relates to behavior, using techniques such as brain imaging and lesion studies.

  • Interdisciplinary approach is referred to as neuroscience, integrating knowledge from biology, chemistry, and psychology to study the brain and behavior.

  • Evolutionary psychology seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior, understanding how behaviors have evolved over time through natural selection.

  • Behaviors are adaptive to their surroundings, increasing an organism's chances of survival and reproduction.

  • Study of behavior in the context of evolution originates with Charles Darwin, who proposed the theory of natural selection.

  • One drawback of evolutionary psychology is that the traits that we possess now evolved under environmental and social conditions far back in human history, and we have a poor understanding of what these conditions were, making it difficult to test evolutionary hypotheses.

  • Evolutionary psychologists have had success in finding experimental correspondence between observations and expectations, using cross-cultural studies and comparative research to test evolutionary predictions.

• Sensation and Perception:

  • Scientists interested in physiological aspects of sensory systems and the psychological experience of sensory information, exploring how we receive and interpret information from the environment.

  • Our experience of the world is influenced by attention, previous experiences, and cultural backgrounds, shaping how we perceive and interpret sensory information.

• Cognitive Psychology:

  • Focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and actions, examining mental processes such as memory, attention, problem-solving, and language.

  • Often involves collaborations among people from diverse disciplinary backgrounds, such as linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience.

  • Interdisciplinary nature is referred to as cognitive science, integrating knowledge from various fields to understand the mind.

  • Research interests span a spectrum of topics, ranging from attention to problem-solving to language to memory, exploring the complexities of human thought.

• Developmental Psychology:

  • The scientific study of development across a lifespan, examining physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes from infancy to old age.

  • Interested in physical maturation, changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes, understanding how these aspects develop over time.

  • Early developmental psychologists focused on changes that occurred through reaching adulthood, emphasizing childhood and adolescence.

  • There is an increasing interest in extending research into the changes that occur much later in life, such as aging and cognitive decline.

• Personality Psychology:

  • Focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique, exploring the consistent ways people think, feel, and behave.

  • Early theorists attempted to explain how an individual’s personality develops from his or her given perspective, such as Freud's psychoanalytic theory and Rogers' humanistic theory.

  • More recently, the study of personality has taken on a more quantitative approach, using statistical methods to identify personality traits.

  • Research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given situation, using questionnaires and behavioral observations.

  • Five trait dimensions are sufficient to capture the variations in personality seen across individuals (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion), providing a comprehensive framework for understanding personality.

• Social Psychology:

  • Focuses on how we interact with and relate to others, examining the influence of social situations on behavior and attitudes.

  • Research includes differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts, exploring the complexities of social interaction.

  • Stanley Milgram conducted research on obedience, demonstrating the power of authority in influencing behavior.

• Industrial-Organizational Psychology:

  • Applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings, improving workplace productivity and employee well-being.

  • Involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment, such as employee selection, training, and motivation.

  • Also involves conducting scientific research on behavior within I-O settings, using data to inform decisions and improve organizational outcomes.

• Health Psychology:

  • Focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors, understanding the complex interplay of factors that influence health and illness.

  • Health psychologists are interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research, promoting healthy behaviors and preventing illness.

• Sport and Exercise Psychology:

  • Study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing, understanding how psychological factors influence athletic performance and participation in physical activity.

  • Research is also conducted on similar topics as they relate to physical exercise in general, promoting the benefits of exercise for mental and physical health.

• Clinical Psychology:

  • Focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior, providing mental health services to individuals and families.

  • Considered to be a more applied area within psychology, translating research findings into clinical practice.

  • Counseling psychology is a similar discipline, focusing on personal and interpersonal issues.

  • Both Freud and Rogers provided perspectives that have been influential in shaping how clinicians interact with people seeking psychotherapy, emphasizing the importance of empathy, understanding, and collaboration.

• Forensic Psychology:

  • A branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system, applying psychological knowledge to legal issues.

  • Forensic psychologists (and forensic psychiatrists) will assess a person’s competency to stand trial, assess the state of mind of a defendant, act as consultants on child custody cases, consult on sentencing and treatment recommendations, and advise on issues such as eyewitness testimony and children’s testimony, providing expertise in legal proceedings.

  • Forensic psychologists are also used in the jury selection process and witness preparation, assisting attorneys in building their cases.

1.4 Careers in Psychology

• Academic Settings:

  • Requires a doctoral degree (PhD) for most specialties and at least a master’s degree for others at a 4-year institution, providing opportunities for teaching, research, and service.

  • PhD requires a dissertation (long research paper) that must be defended, demonstrating expertise in a specific area of psychology.

  • Faculty appointments involve teaching, research, and service, contributing to the advancement of psychological knowledge and education.

  • Adjunct faculty members and instructors often have primary careers outside of academia, bringing real-world experience to the classroom.

• Other Careers in Academic Settings

  • Two year colleges and schools need faculty to teach their courses in psychology, and many of these positions require a master's degree in psychology, providing opportunities for teaching and mentoring students.

• Career Options Outside of Academic Settings:

  • PsyD (doctor of psychology): Focuses on application of psychological principles in the clinical context, preparing graduates for careers in clinical practice.

  • Licensed clinical or counseling psychologists can work in private practice or hospital settings, providing mental health services to individuals and families.

  • Clinical psychologists have a PhD or a PsyD, while psychiatrists have an MD, highlighting the different training pathways for mental health professionals.

  • PhDs can work in various settings, such as pharmaceutical companies or the legal system, applying their research skills in diverse contexts.

  • Master’s degrees in psychology can lead to careers as professional counselors, school psychologists, or consultants, providing specialized services in various settings.

  • Undergraduate coursework in psychology can be applicable to other careers such as psychiatric social work or psychiatric nursing, providing a foundation for understanding human behavior in related fields.

  • Skills from a bachelor’s degree in psychology are useful in various work contexts, such as case management, sales, human resources, and teaching, enhancing interpersonal skills and understanding of human behavior.