Political Socialization

• Political Socialization: the process by which individuals establish their political ideologies

• There are two distinguishing characteristics of political socialization

  1. Most people’s political outlooks are shaped during childhood.

  2. The process is cumulative- you are shaped over time.

• Primary agents of Socialization: interact closely and regularly with the individual, typically in early life. (Family, for example)

  • Primary Influences: family (attention of children that could set political beliefs), school (early formative years affect your political thoughts), religion (the religion you may have grown up with)

• Secondary agents of Socialization: a less intimate connection with an individual and are usually more important later in life

  • Secondary Influences: peers (copy-catting), media (social media accounts and influencers), events (9/11, assassinations, Covid)

    Group Orientations

  • Economic Class: your class determines what you look for in a president and leader.

    • People with similar incomes, but different occupations, do not share the same opinions

  • Race: significant source of opinion differences

    • Whites tend to be more conservative, minorities tend to be more liberal

  • Gender: male-female differences of opinion are small on most issues

    • the tendency of women to vote is more strongly democratic than men. women face more economic vulnerability and greater childcare role

  • Region: rural: more conservative. Urban: more liberal

  • Age: younger voters: more liberal. Older voters: more conservative

• Political Identification: the political party that you think you belong to

• Political Ideology: a set of views on politics and the role of government

• Most Republicans believe some of the following:

  • “Small” Government

  • Favor supply-side or “trickle-down” economics (helping business grows the economy)

  • Private Insurance>Obamacare/national healthcare services

  • Pro-Family (anti-gay marriage/against LGBTQ+)

  • Pro-Life (anti-abortion)

  • Pro-gun (against gun control laws)

  • Military>diplomacy (want to talk to foreign countries over signing things)

• Being Conservative means:

  • Adverse to rapid change

  • desire to preserve ideas in the Declaration of Independence and Constitution

  • limited government and low taxes

  • desire to preserve traditional morality

  • favor free-market capitalism

  • desire to use military options over diplomatic options

• Most Democrats believe in:

  • “Big” government creates a just and equal society

  • Pro-Labor and Pro-Union (increase tax on the rich)

  • Pro-Immigrant (would like to fix the current system to allow more immigrants in)

  • LGBTQ+ allies and pro-gay marriage

  • In favor of increasing gun control legislation

  • Diplomacy> military force

• Being Liberal means:

  • believe that change leads to progress

  • desire to preserve the ideals in the DoI and Constitution

  • desire to use the government to help the less fortunate

  • desire to protect and expand the rights of minority groups

  • favor regulations to prevent the abuses of capitalism

  • desire to use diplomatic options over military options

Other Popular American Identities

• Libertarian Party: promotes civil liberties, non-interventionism, laissez-faire capitalism, and limiting the size of government

• Green Party: promotes environmentalism, nonviolence, social justice, grassroots democracy, anti-war, anti-racism, and eco-socialism

• Constitution Party, Democratic Socialists, Social Conservatives, Neoconservatives, Feminism, Environmentalists, etc.

Measuring Public Opinion

What is public opinion? - Public Opinion is viewed as the politically relevant opinions held by ordinary citizens that they express openly.

• The expression does not need to be verbal (participation of politics)

Public Opinion Polls - Sample- interviewed in order to estimate the opinions of a whole population

• Uses random selection from a population (demographic group): their opinions should reflect those of the population as a whole

• The accuracy of a poll is expressed in terms of sampling error - the degree to which the sample estimates might differ from what the population actually thinks (+/-).

Problems with Polls - Political polling suffers from some of the following issues:

• Choosing a random sample is difficult

• Question order & wording may (purposely) affect results: framing effects & push polls

• Respondents…

  • May not know the issues

  • May not choose to reveal their opinions

  • May not be truthful

  • May choose to give the “politically correct” response

What Role Should the Public Play?

• A fundamental principle of democracy is that the people’s view ought to be the foundation of government, but should it?

• Some claim it would be foolish to base policy decisions on whatever the people think (alcohol)

  • James Madison writes in The Federalist - the gov. is obliged to represent only the public’s “true” interests. (Trustee representation)

• Some contend that almost any opinion held by ordinary citizens should be taken into account by the government

  • George Gallup (public opinion polling industry)

    • Leaders should be closely in tune with the citizenry

    • Based on the views of Jackson and Progressives - a strong faith in the judgment of ordinary citizens

Voter Participation

Suffrage: the right to vote

• The right to vote in America has been restricted by wealth, race, and gender

  • Black Suffrage: 1870, in reality, 1965

  • Women’s Suffrage: 1920

  • Native Americans 1924

  • 18-year-olds: 1971

Voter Turnout: refers to the percentage of eligible voters who actually cast a ballot

• Since the 1960s, voter turnout in presidential elections has not reached 60% (but did in 2016 &2020)

  • Midterm elections - 40%

  • Local elections are even smaller…

• Factors affecting voter turnout:

  • Registration requirements

    • Americans must personally register to vote

      • Added burden on would-be voters

      • States make it difficult for citizens to register to vote

      • Registration locations & time periods may not be published

      • Voter ID Cards vs Automatic Registration

1. Registration Requirement

   1. Often state and local officials don’t simplify registration procedures in an effort to reduce the number of new voters

      1. Same-Day Registration (1970s-today)

         1. increased registration and turnout

      2. Motor Voter Law (1993)

         1. increased registration, but not turnout

2. Frequency of Elections

   1. Americans are asked to vote more than anywhere else in the western world

      1. reduces willingness to vote (voter burn-out)

      2. state and local officials stagger elections to insulate their races from the possible effects of other campaigns

      3. In an effort to eliminate “presidential coattails,” states began in the 1930s to hold their gubernatorial elections in nonpresidential years

   2. The US is the only democracy to use primaries to choose party nominees rather than party leaders

3. Party Differences

   1. Many Americans see little difference between the two major political parties

      1. the similarity of the parties makes voting seem largely irrelevant

   2. The absence of major labor or socialist party in the US system appears to undermine the political consciousness and participation of Americans with low income, and education

Defining Voter Participation

• Political Participation: involvement in activities designed to influence public policy and leadership

• about 55% of voters actually vote

Why Do Some Americans Vote and Others Do Not?

1. Your Civic attitude

   1. regular voters are characterized by a strong sense of civic duty

      1. regard participation in elections as a responsibility of citizenship

      2. acquired through childhood political socialization

   2. Many citizens are disinterested or unconcerned with politics (apathy).

   3. Turnout can increase if:

      1. people believe their participation will make a difference

      2. citizens have a high degree of trust in the government

   4. Alienation: diminishes people’s interest in political participation

2. Age

   1. Young adults are less likely to vote than middle-aged adults or senior citizens

      1. Do not necessarily have political concerns that match those who own homes, have permanent careers, and have a family

3. Education

   1. Those with higher education are more likely to vote

      1. Education generates greater interest in politics, a higher level of political knowledge, greater confidence that one can make a difference politically, and peer pressure to participate

4. Economic Status

   1. Regular voters tend to have a higher economic status

      1. European nations encourage lower-class voter participation, whereas the U.S. middle class is the target in America

      2. Poor people would probably have a greater turnout if party alternatives were different

The Popular Mandate

• Popular mandate: a vast majority of voters demand certain actions from the victor

  • Difficulty with this interpretation of election results- voters are not well informed of candidates’ policy positions

    • Candidates do not always make themselves clear

    • News media covers campaigns as if they were a strategic game hence de-emphasizing issues of policy

    • Often voters are personally inattentive to politics

How Voters Vote

• Prospective Voting

  • Voters are highly informed on the position of candidates on the issues

  • Voters choose candidates whose policy promises match their preferences

• Retrospective Voting

  • Voters support incumbent candidates or parties when they are pleased with the performance

  • Reverse their position when they are displeased

• Straight Ticket Voting

  • Voters vote for members of their party

• Split Ticket Voting

  • Voters vote for the candidates they like

Other Forms of Civic Participation

• Campaign Activities

  • Attending campaign rallies

  • canvassing neighborhoods

  • donating money

• Community Activities

  • School boards, parent-teacher associations, booster clubs, etc.

  • Citizens work together to accomplish community goals

• Attending the News

  • Passive political participation: non-participatory activities like watching and reading the news

Who is Politically Active?

• Conventional participation is more attractive to those who

  • are older

  • have higher incomes

  • are more educated

  • have a strong sense of civic duty

  • do not feel politically alienated

• Conventional Activism: includes voting, donating money or time, writing a letter

• Unconventional Activism: includes the use of protests, boycotts, sit-ins, or even riots

Participation and the Potential for Influence

• Even though Americans are mainly concerned about personal matters, their votes are potentially lethal weapons

Campaigns & Elections

How Democratic are U.S. Elections?

“Time, Place, and Manner”

• Article 1, section 4 gives state legislatures control over the “time, place, and manner” of elections

  • Explains different felon voting laws, times, mail-in rules, etc.

• Frequency of Some Elections

• Barriers to Voting

  • There have been several legal impediments

    • Literacy Tests: fake reading test to bar black voters

    • Poll taxes: fee paid in order to vote

    • White primary: excludes black voters, ended by SC

PACs vs. Super PACs

• Political Action Committees

  • An organization that raises money privately to influence elections or legislation, especially at the federal level

    • Allowed to give $5000 per election (pr/gn)

    • -4000 PACs account for 1/3 of all contributions

• Super PACs

  • A type of PAC that can raise unlimited amounts of money to promote a candidate or a cause

    • Can not contribute to a candidate

    • Can use unlimited funds to promote a candidate

• Pros and Cons:

  • Pros

    • Current federal contribution limits for individuals are low

      • • $5000

    • Candidates spend less time fundraising - more time meeting with voters

  • Cons

    • PACs often favor incumbents over newbies

      • Incumbent: a person running for office again

    • The system favors the interests of the rich over the poor

Presidential Campaigns & Elections

Who runs for President?

• Qualifications:

  • 35 years old

  • A “natural born citizen”

  • A resident of the US for 14 years

• Terms

  • 2 elected 4-year terms

  • 10 total years

  • Originally unlimited terms

  • was tradition (until FDR)

  • 1951: 22nd amendment

• Most have had experience

  • 15 were vice presidents

  • 19 House reps

  • 16 Senators

Phases of Presidential Elections

1. Winning the Nomination

   1. The “invisible primary”: refers to a candidate’s ability to raise money and interest in the public

   2. Caucus: Iowa’s first-in-the-nation event to select a candidate and delegates to the state convention

   3. Closed Primary: voting done by party members only

   4. Open Primary: Eligible voters can vote for any candidate regardless of party

   5. Super Tuesday: a date in the primary calendar when multiple states hold primaries and caucuses

2. Organizing the Convention

   1. Superdelegates: party elites who get to vote along with state delegates at a party’s national convention; former presidents, governors, senators of that state

   2. The winner of the primary is announced and confirmed at the National Convention. The Vice Presidential candidate is also announced

   3. Party “stars” give speeches and articulate the party’s platform

      1. Platform: the issues the party believes are the most important and where they stand on them

3. The General Election

   1. More Debates: The two main candidates square off in televised debates on the issues

      1. The Economy: If the economy is doing poorly, the party holding power suffers

      2. Domestic Issues: E2M2- education energy, Medicare, and Medicaid. Important issues to many voters

      3. Foreign Policy: less popular than domestic issues, except in times of war

      4. The electoral college

         1. Electors and Electoral Votes (538 total/270 to win)

         2. Since the Election of 1800

         3. Now custom practice

      5. Problems with the Electoral College

         1. The winner of the Popular Vote may not win the presidency

         2. Electors do not have to reflect the popular vote: faithless electors

         3. If no candidate gets to 270 electoral votes, the House of Representatives decides who becomes president

Who Runs for Congress?

• 541 Total (535 Voting)

  • 100 senate, 435 HOR

  • 6 non-voting territorial delegates

Who Runs for the House?

• Terms

  • Serve 2 years

  • Can serve unlimited terms

    • Incumbency advantage: the tendency of Congress members to win reelection in overwhelming numbers

Midterm Elections:

• Elections that fall between Presidential Elections

  • All of the House, ⅓ of the Senate

  • Typically the party in power loses seats in both chambers

Districts:

• Historically: At-Large

  • Voters choose as a whole as many candidates as allotted

  • 1842: Congress did away with At Large/General Ticket

  • Still: 7 states have 1 representative

• Now: Single-Member District

  • State Congress divides states into zones so only 1 person represents the allotted amount

Apportionment: # of representatives set by Congress

• 1929 Reapportionment Act set the number at 435

• Each rep = around 715k in (2012)

• All states get at least 1 representative.

Reapportionment:

• After every census, House seats are redistributed based on changes in population

Who runs for Senate?

Iowa: Chuck Grassley & Joni Ernst

Terms:

• Serves 6 years

  • ⅓ of the Senate is up for election every 2 years

  • Incumbency advantage

  • Rep large Constituencies

  • Whole state vs district

  • More publicity & power

Qualifications:

• At least 30 years old

• US Citizen for 9+ years

• A resident of the state they represent

Redistricting:

• Redraws district boundaries

• Based on population change

• Loss of Representation

GERRYMANDERING:

• Redistricting that favors a party/candidate/issue

• Can limit oppositions wins

• Or ensure their own victories

Wesberry v Sanders

• Est. districts must be similar in size

Political Parties

What is a political party? - An ongoing coalition of interests joined together to try to get their candidates for public office elected under a common label. What?

A team of politicians, activists, and voters whose goal is to win control of the government.

Each political party is essentially three parties in one:

1. The party in the electorate (voters who identify with it and support its candidate).

2. The party as candidates (those running for public office).

3. The party as a political organization (staffed and led by party activists).

Why do we have political parties?

• Party competition narrows down people’s options and enables those with differing opinions to render a common judgment. Parties…

  • Champion Ideas

  • Select Candidates

  • Mobilize Voters

  • Integrate New Voters into the Process

Party Systems

• The two-party system is seen in America in which only two political parties have a real chance of acquiring control of the government.

• Multi Party Systems in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in a coalition.

Party-Centered Politics:

• Party-Centered Politics: election campaigns and other political processes in which political parties, not individual candidates, hold most of the initiative and influence.

  • Popular in the US prior to the 1968 election of Richard Nixon

  • Still popular in Europe

    • No primaries

Candidate Centered Politics

• Candidate-Centered Politics: election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have most of the initiative and influence.

  • Most popular in the US

  • On the rise in Europe with far-right political groups whose charisma gives their party legitimacy

Party Organizations

• American Party Organizations: the organizational units of the party at national, state, and local levels, are the weakest in the world and U.S. candidates are among the most independent.

A Brief History of U.S. Parties: 1789-1828

The first Parties originated from the rivalry between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton

The Federalist Party

• Alexander Hamilton

• stong National Government

• Wealthy and commercial interests

• Favored ratification of the Constitution

The Democratic-Republic Party

• Thomas Jefferson

• Strong states rights

• Small landholders, shopkeepers

1828-1860

The second party system developed from the break-up of the Democratic-Republican party and the creation of a new party

The Democratic Party

• Andrew Jackson

• Strong State’s rights

• Interests of farmers & tradesmen, pro-immigrant, pro-slavery

• Fewer rights for free blacks, use of the “spoils system:” jobs given to supporters

The Whig Party

• Anti-Jackson party

• Favored strong federal government

• Interest in business, a little anti-immigrant, and abolition

• They would be torn apart over the issue of slavery

1860-1896

The third party system developed from the break-up of the Whig Party and the creation of a new party: The Republican Party

• Party realignments: the party realigns itself with new philosophies, policies, and supporters

• Causes of realignment:

  • A powerful and divisive issue

  • Voters overwhelmingly support one party over another

  • A change in policy in response to the opposing party’s policies

  • A change in who votes for them

Three Major Realignments- The Civil War Realignment

The origins of the Republican Party

• Emerges as a grassroots party around the issue of slavery

• Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860

• Replace Whigs as the other dominant party

• Nations party system collapsed in 1860- the only time in American History

Three Major Realignments- the 1896 Realignment

The economic Panic of 1893 leads to severe depression, Democrat Grover Cleveland was blamed

• The Populist Party

  • A Pro-farmer/factory worker party

  • Challenged Republicans on issues of women’s suffrage, immigration, and business regulation

• Republicans make huge gains, the nation’s dominant party

  • From 1896-1936, only 1 Dem. was elected

• GOP has the majority in Congress- all but 6 years

Three Major Realignments- The New Deal Realignment

President Hoover (R) was blamed for the Great Depression

• Democrats became the country’s majority party:

  • Increased the social and economic role of the national government

  • New Deal coalition: working class, African Americans, elderly, labor unions, Southern segregationists

  • From 1932-1968: Dwight d. Eisenhower only Republican President

The Realignment of 1968 (“Fourth” Realignment)

A change in the republican party

• The Southern Strategy: use campaign language that reinforces white supremacy

  • Southern Democrats become Republicans

A change in both the Republican and Democratic parties

• The Civil Rights Movement: pushed to end Jim Crow and segregation gets more support from the Democratic party

  • Southern Democrats (Dixiecrats) become upset with this development and begin to convert to the Republican party.

Minority Parties

Minor parties have existed throughout American history

• Most form to advocate positions that their followers believe are not being represented by either of the two major parties

• Minor parties that do attract a strong following, force the major parties to address otherwise neglected issues

• Third parties that are similar to a major party may split votes with them

Party Coalitions

What is a Party Coalition?

• Party coalition: the groups and interests that support a political party

  • Demographic groups:

    • gender, ethnicity, religion, Income (SES)

  • Issue groups:

    • Voters united behind an issue (or policy goal).

  • Republicans:

    • less government involvement to promote economic security and social equality

    • White

    • the rich

    • protestants

    • big business

    • rural

  • Democrats

    • More government involvement to promote economic security and social equality

    • minority groups

    • the poor

    • Jewish, Muslim, Catholic (?)

    • Labor

    • Urban

Interest Groups

• political interest group: an organization whose goal is to influence government

• Pluralist theory: argues that group activity brings representation to all

  • Groups link people & government

  • Hyperpluralism: policymaking is slow because of so many interest groups

• Elitist theory: argues that a few wealthy groups have the most power

  • groups are extremely unequal in power

  • Power is held by the largest corporations, which prevail in big decisions

Types of Interest Groups

1. Economic Groups

   • the most common type of interest group in America. They engage in political activity in order to seek favorable economic policies from the government.

2. Citizens’ Groups

   1. Groups formed to promote a cause they believe in, but which doesn’t have direct economic benefits

      1. environment, prayer in schools, feeding the poor, abortion, etc.

   2. These groups pushed for public goods-roads, schools, and clean air- which are available to all

   3. Free-Rider Problem

      1. someone who benefits but doesn’t contribute

   4. Types of Citizens’ Groups

      1. Public-Interest Groups

         1. attempt to act in the broad interests of society as a whole

         2. Seek benefits less tangible and more broadly shared

      2. Single-Issue Groups

         1. Organized to affect policy in one specific area

         2. Examples include:

            1. National Rifle Assn. (guns)

            2. National Organization of Women (abortion)

      3. Ideological Group

         1. Concerned with a broad range of policies from a general philosophical, moral, or political stance

         2. Examples include:

            1. Americans for Prosperity (Conservative)

            2. Democracy for America (Liberal)

Lobbying

What is Lobbying?

• Lobbying: the efforts of groups to influence public policy through contact with public officials

• Public policy: the rules and laws of governing activity

Inside and Outside Lobbying

• Inside

  • Direct Lobbying

  • Efforts to influence legislation or policies directly by contacting legislators and their assistants, sometimes called staffers or aides

• Outside

  • Indirect Lobbying

  • Efforts to influence legislation or policies through public pressure like advertisements, marches, protests, and information campaigns

What do Lobbyists Do?; Inside Lobbying

• The focus is access to public officials to

  • provide them with information/advise

  • expressing group concerns in order to promote the favorable legislation/policies

• MONEY is needed to mount a lobbying effort in Washington D.C.

Lobbying Executive Agencies

• Executive agencies: regulate a certain area of life (often economic). Lobbyists try to influence their policy decisions

• Regulatory Capture: when a regulatory agency advances the interest of the interest groups that dominate the industry, it is charged with regulating.

How Policy is Decided- Two Ways

• Iron Triangles: a small set of bureaucrats, legislators, and lobbyists who seek to develop policies beneficial to a particular interest.

• Issue Networks: a large group of bureaucrats, lawmakers, and lobbyists (the “network”) who are brought together by their shared interest in a broad issue. The President and the media also get involved.

Committees: Where most work occurs

• Customary: Seniority Rule

  • Most years in office = Highest posts

  • Majority Party holds the Chair

Types of Committees

• Standing

  • Permanents Panels

  • Most handle policy and laws

• Select (Special)

  • Temporary or Limited

  • Specific Purpose (investigative)

• Joint

  • Made up of both houses

  • Can be both Standing or Select

• Conference

  • Handles differences in bills before it can be sent to the President