How successful was Henry VIII’s foreign policy in the years 1509 to 1529?

Paragraph 1: France – Military Glory and Temporary Gains

Point: Henry VIII’s foreign policy towards France was driven by his desire for military glory and to assert dominance, though his success in this area was mixed.

Evidence: In the early years of his reign, Henry joined the Holy League against France and launched a military campaign in 1513. He achieved victories at the Battle of the Spurs and captured Tournai and Thérouanne, which were significant in terms of prestige. However, these military gains were short-lived, and Henry was forced to agree to a peace settlement with France through the Treaty of London (1518), which secured a brief diplomatic triumph. Despite the grand spectacle of the Field of the Cloth of Gold summit in 1520, which showcased Henry’s ambitions, little substantial gain came from this meeting.

Explanation: While Henry's victories at the Battle of the Spurs and the Field of the Cloth of Gold enhanced his reputation as a warrior king, the military successes were not sustainable. The temporary nature of these gains, combined with the financial costs of war, demonstrated the limits of Henry’s foreign policy ambitions. His desire for glory was often at odds with England’s actual capabilities, and his foreign policy achievements in France failed to secure long-term advantages for the kingdom.

Historical Concept: Cause and Consequence – Henry’s military campaigns in France were a direct result of his need to establish a powerful, warrior-king image, but they led to limited tangible benefits. The short-term victories, such as the capture of Tournai, were overshadowed by the long-term financial and diplomatic costs.

Paragraph 2: Scotland – Military Success and Inconsistent Policy

Point: Henry VIII’s foreign policy towards Scotland was initially successful but became inconsistent, with long-term goals undermined by shifting strategies.

Evidence: Henry’s greatest success in Scotland came in 1513 with the Battle of Flodden, where the Scottish king, James IV, was killed, and England’s northern borders were secured. However, after this victory, Henry’s policy towards Scotland fluctuated. Although he sought to secure a dynastic union through the Treaty of Greenwich (1543) by proposing a marriage between his son, Prince Edward, and Mary, Queen of Scots, this plan was rejected by the Scots. Additionally, the "Rough Wooing" campaigns in the 1540s failed to produce a permanent solution to the Scottish question.

Explanation: While the Battle of Flodden was a significant military achievement, Henry’s failure to follow up on this success and his inconsistent foreign policy toward Scotland weakened England’s long-term position. The inability to secure the Treaty of Greenwich or fully dominate Scotland led to a persistent threat on the northern border and squandered the potential of the earlier victory.

Historical Concept: Change and Continuity – Henry’s foreign policy towards Scotland reflected both change and continuity. While he initially achieved success with Flodden, his later aggressive tactics and failure to achieve a lasting diplomatic settlement reflected a shift in strategy that was ultimately ineffective.

Paragraph 3: Spain and the Holy Roman Empire – Opportunism and Diplomatic Challenges

Point: Henry VIII’s foreign policy towards Spain and the Holy Roman Empire was opportunistic, but his relations with these powers often lacked consistency and long-term effectiveness.

Evidence: Henry’s initial alignment with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire through the Holy League in the early 1510s helped counterbalance French power. However, his relations with Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, became strained after Charles’s victory at Pavia in 1525. The Treaty of Bruges (1521) initially aligned England with Charles, but the diplomatic relationship soured as Henry sought an annulment from Catherine of Aragon, Charles’s aunt, leading to England’s diplomatic isolation. By the 1530s, Henry shifted to a more anti-imperial stance, attempting to form alliances with France, though these alliances were weak and short-lived.

Explanation: The inconsistency in Henry’s relations with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire reflects the challenges of balancing his dynastic ambitions with the larger European power dynamics. While Henry initially benefitted from alliances, these were often opportunistic and did not result in long-term stability for England. His focus on the "Great Matter" and divorce from Catherine of Aragon further complicated diplomatic relations, isolating England from key allies.

Historical Concept: Cause and Consequence – Henry’s shifting alliances were a result of his personal ambitions and dynastic concerns, particularly his desire for a male heir. This led to diplomatic isolation and left England vulnerable as a minor power in the European context.