Study Guide for Ancient Civilizations and Historical Developments with Key Dates

Key Terms and Concepts:

1. Homer – Greek poet, author of The Iliad and The Odyssey (~750-700 BCE).

2. Carthage – Powerful North African city-state, rival to Rome; founded around 814 BCE, destroyed in 146 BCE.

3. Sophists – Greek teachers of philosophy and rhetoric (5th century BCE).

4. Minoan Civilization – Early civilization on Crete, precursor to Mycenaean Greece (~2000-1450 BCE).

5. Etruscans – Influential civilization in Italy (~900-400 BCE), key to early Roman culture.

6. Punic Wars – Series of wars between Rome and Carthage (264-146 BCE).

7. Hagia Sophia – Byzantine architectural marvel, originally a church; completed in 537 CE under Justinian.

8. Peloponnesian War – Conflict between Athens and Sparta (431-404 BCE).

9. Rashidun – The four “Rightly Guided” caliphs after Muhammad’s death (632-661 CE).

10. Qur’an – The holy book of Islam, compiled after Muhammad’s death (7th century CE).

11. Plato & Aristotle – Foundational Greek philosophers. Plato lived from 428-348 BCE, Aristotle from 384-322 BCE.

12. Kaaba – The sacred shrine in Mecca central to Islamic worship; dates to pre-Islamic times, but re-sanctified in 630 CE.

13. Hannibal – Carthaginian general, famous for crossing the Alps to attack Rome during the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE).

14. Visigoths – Germanic tribe that sacked Rome in 410 CE.

15. Augustus – First Roman emperor (reigned 27 BCE – 14 CE), established the Empire.

16. Five Good Emperors – Series of effective Roman emperors (96-180 CE).

17. Diocletian – Roman emperor (reigned 284-305 CE) who split the empire into Eastern and Western halves.

18. Constantine – Roman emperor (reigned 306-337 CE), legalized Christianity in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan.

19. Justinian & Theodora – Byzantine emperor and empress (reigned 527-565 CE); known for the Corpus Juris Civilis and architectural achievements.

20. Leo the Isaurian – Byzantine emperor (reigned 717-741 CE), key figure in the Iconoclastic Controversy.

21. Muhammad & Ali – Prophet of Islam (570-632 CE) and his cousin/son-in-law, key figures in the Sunni-Shi’a split.

22. Five Pillars of Faith – Fundamental practices in Islam, established during Muhammad's lifetime (7th century CE).

23. Cordoba – Center of learning and culture in Islamic Spain, particularly during the Umayyad rule (756-1031 CE).

24. Crisis of the 3rd Century – Period of instability in the Roman Empire (235-284 CE).

25. Umayyads & Abbasids – Two major Islamic dynasties. The Umayyads ruled from 661-750 CE, Abbasids from 750-1258 CE.

26. Iconoclastic Controversy – Debate over the use of religious images in the Byzantine Empire (726-843 CE).

Major Historical Themes & Developments

1. Mycenaean Culture:

   • Early Greek civilization known for its palatial structures and warrior aristocracy (~1600-1100 BCE). Key figures include Agamemnon.

   • Importance: Foundation of later Greek culture, trade networks, and epic poetry.

2. Dark and Archaic Ages of Greece:

   • Key Developments: Colonization, rise of the polis (city-state), early religious traditions, and the works of Homer (~1100-500 BCE).

   • Importance: Set the stage for classical Greek culture, political systems, and the eventual emergence of democracy.

3. Political & Social Structures of Athens and Sparta:

   • Athens: Democracy, philosophy, and arts flourished (~500-400 BCE).

   • Sparta: Militaristic, oligarchic society focused on discipline and warfare.

   • Importance: Contrast between these two city-states highlights different approaches to governance and society in ancient Greece.

4. Persian and Peloponnesian Wars:

   • Persian Wars (499-449 BCE): Unified Greek city-states against a common enemy, leading to the rise of Athens.

   • Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE): Conflict between Athens and Sparta, leading to the decline of Athens and shifts in Greek power dynamics.

   • Importance: Shaped the future of Greek politics and laid the groundwork for Macedonian dominance.

5. Alexander the Great:

   • Conquered much of the known world, from Greece to Egypt and India (336-323 BCE).

   • Importance: Spread Greek culture (Hellenism), creating a fusion of Greek and Eastern cultures.

6. Hellenistic Age:

   • After Alexander’s death (323 BCE), his empire fragmented, but Greek culture continued to spread.

   • Key developments in philosophy, science, and the arts.

Roman Republic & Empire

1. Early Rome & the Etruscans:

   • Rome’s early development influenced by the Etruscans (~753-509 BCE).

   • Importance: Foundation of Roman institutions that allowed the Republic to last and expand.

2. Punic Wars:

   • Fought between Rome and Carthage (264-146 BCE), leading to Roman dominance in the Mediterranean.

   • Importance: Rome’s triumph in these wars set the stage for its imperial expansion.

3. Fall of the Republic & Rise of the Empire:

   • Key Figures: Julius Caesar (assassinated in 44 BCE), Augustus (first emperor, began reign in 27 BCE).

   • Importance: Shift from a republic to an imperial system, concentrating power in the hands of one ruler.

4. Roman Empire & Christianity:

   • After Constantine legalized Christianity in 313 CE, it became the dominant religion.

   • Important Figures: Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose (Church Fathers).

   • Importance: Christianity’s rise shaped the religious and cultural landscape of Europe for centuries.

5. The Five Good Emperors:

   • Known for relative stability, peace, and prosperity in the Roman Empire (96-180 CE).

   • Importance: Last great era of the Roman Empire before its eventual decline.

Fall of Rome & Rise of the Byzantine Empire

1. Fall of the Roman Empire:

   • Causes: Germanic invasions (Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 CE), internal instability, and external pressures.

   • Importance: Transition from Roman rule to the Byzantine Empire in the East.

2. Byzantine Empire:

   • Key Figures: Justinian (reigned 527-565 CE; known for legal reforms and building the Hagia Sophia), Theodora, Heraclius (reigned 610-641 CE), Leo the Isaurian (reigned 717-741 CE).

   • Importance: Preservation of Roman traditions and culture, conflict with Islamic caliphates.

3. Iconoclastic Controversy:

   • Debate over the use of icons in worship (726-843 CE).

   • Importance: Highlighted the intersection of religion and politics in Byzantium.

Islamic History & Culture

1. Life of Muhammad & the Qur'an:

   • Muhammad’s revelations (610-632 CE) form the basis of Islam, with the Qur'an as the central religious text (compiled after his death in 632 CE).

   • Importance: Shaped the foundations of Islamic civilization and its rapid expansion.

2. Rightly Guided Caliphs:

   • After Muhammad’s death, the first four caliphs led the Muslim community (632-661 CE).

   • Importance: Established the Islamic caliphate, with key events like the Sunni-Shi'a split.

3. Umayyads and Abbasids:

   • Umayyads ruled from 661-750 CE, expanding the empire into Spain.

   • Abbasids ruled from 750-1258 CE, leading a cultural and intellectual golden age.

   • Importance: Their reigns fostered advancements in science, literature, and art.

4. Islamic Cultural Contributions:

   • Centers of learning like the House of Wisdom in Baghdad and the library in Cordoba flourished during the Abbasid period (8th-13th centuries).

   • Contributions in math, science, architecture, and philosophy.

   • Importance: These achievements had a lasting impact on both the Islamic world and Western civilization.