Russia (AP Comp Review)

A BRIEF HISTORY OF RUSSIA Russia's history is deeply rooted in powerful autocratic leadership, dominated by Tsars prior to the 1917 revolution. Key Tsars include:

• Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584): The first Tsar of Russia, known for his authoritarian rule and the expansion of territory. He is infamously remembered for the bloody oprichnina, a state policy he enacted to consolidate power and eliminate perceived enemies, involving executions and land confiscations.

• Peter the Great (1682-1725): He revolutionized Russia by modernizing the military, restructured the government, and financed the development of education. Peter relocated the capital to St. Petersburg, a city designed to open Russia to the West and symbolize his efforts to Westernize the country, often at the expense of traditional Russian culture and the power of the nobility.

• Catherine the Great (1762-1796): The longest-serving female leader of Russia, renowned for her territorial expansion, patronage of the arts, and the establishment of the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls, which was the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. Her reign is often referred to as the Golden Age of the Russian nobility. Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, Russia transitioned into a socialist state governed by the Communist Party. The major leaders included:

• Vladimir Lenin (1917-1924): He led the October Revolution, establishing a one-party state, and laid the foundation for the USSR, implementing the New Economic Policy to stabilize the economy post-war, allowing small-scale private enterprise while nationalizing major industries.

• Joseph Stalin (1925-1953): Notorious for his totalitarian regime characterized by rapid industrialization, forced collectivization of agriculture, and the Great Purge, which eliminated political adversaries through executions and imprisonment, resulting in millions of deaths and suffering.

• Nikita Khrushchev (1953-1964): He initiated the de-Stalinization process, characterized by political and artistic liberalization known as the Khrushchev Thaw, and played a major role during the Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world close to nuclear war.

• Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1984): His leadership is marked by relative stability but also stagnation, marked by the Brezhnev Doctrine claiming the right to intervene in other socialist countries, enforcing conformity in Eastern Europe.

• Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991): His reformist agenda aimed to adapt communism to modern needs through policies such as Glasnost (political openness) and Perestroika (economic restructuring), ultimately leading to the uprising of various national movements and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. THE USSR

• 1922: The establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which centralized power in the Communist Party, abolishing competitive political parties and imposing strict controls on civil liberties. This period solidified the oppressive state structure that restricted freedoms.

• The Nomenklatura system was introduced to ensure loyalty within the ranks, through a list of influential positions appointed by the party, enabling it to maintain control over all levels of governance.

• Key policies included Collectivization and Industrialization: massive government control led to the consolidation of farms into large, state-run collectives, which often resulted in widespread famine, particularly the Holodomor in Ukraine. The implementation of the Three Five-Year Plans dramatically accelerated industrial production in critical sectors such as oil, steel, and electricity, at enormous human costs. REFORMS AND COLLAPSE OF THE USSR (1985-1991)

• Mikhail Gorbachev launched reforms with three pivotal policies:

  • Glasnost: Promoted transparency in government institutions, freedom of information, and public debate on social issues, allowing citizens to express grievances against the government leading to increased political activism.

  • Democratization: Created the Congress of People's Deputies and allowed limited multi-candidate elections, fostering a more pluralistic political landscape within the Soviet system.

  • Perestroika: Implemented economic reforms aimed at decentralizing control, encouraging grassroots initiatives, and pushing towards a market economy, though these reforms led to economic upheaval and shortages of goods. These policies inadvertently contributed to national unrest and the eventual dissolution of the USSR, resulting in the emergence of 15 independent republics TYPE OF GOVERNMENT IN RUSSIA

• Asymmetric Federalism: Russia operates under this model with 85 federal subjects, including numerous republics which possess varying degrees of autonomy. This complex political landscape includes 21 regions that are predominantly non-Russian and often harbor ethnic tensions, particularly in areas with significant minority populations such as Tatarstan and Chechnya.

• Hybrid Regime: Initially, the post-1991 governance structure exhibited democratic principles but gradually devolved into a more authoritarian system under President Vladimir Putin since 1999, characterized by amendments that consolidated executive power and enforced a crackdown on dissenting voices, notably in the media and civil society. THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH IN RUSSIA

• Semi-Presidential System features an elected president who holds substantial authority, paired with a prime minister appointed by the president and confirmed by the Duma. The President:

  • Serves as the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and is responsible for key areas of policy direction and diplomatic relations, fostering a strong international presence.

  • Can only be removed through impeachment by the legislature under extraordinary circumstances.

• The Prime Minister, currently Mikhail Mishustin, manages government functions, proposes legislation, and oversees budgetary matters, but always remains under the president's oversight for significant decisions. THE JUDICIAL BRANCH IN RUSSIA

• The judiciary lacks true independence, with courts often manipulated for political gain, particularly to stifle opposition leaders. Judges are appointed by the president with Federation Council approval, leading to a judicial system rife with corruption and biased outcomes.

• The legal system often prioritizes maintaining order over administering justice, further marginalizing minority and opposition groups. POLITICAL PARTIES IN RUSSIA

• Dominance of the United Russia Party: Founded in 2001, it is the largest political party, closely linked to President Putin's administration, which manages to suppress genuine opposition while maintaining a facade of political pluralism. Other parties, such as the Communist Party and LDPR, exist primarily for external validation of democracy but lack any real power. INTEREST GROUPS, MEDIA, AND CIVIL SOCIETY IN RUSSIA

• Interest Groups: Oligarchs wield significant power, leveraging connections formed during Russia's transition to market capitalism to influence political decision-making, often in their favor.

• Civil Society remains weak, pressured through restrictive regulations on independent organizations, with many being forced to operate under governmental oversight or face closure.

• Media: Mostly state-controlled, limiting free speech abilities; journalists critical of the state risk severe consequences, contributing to Russia's low rankings on global press freedom indexes, indicating a significant lack of diversity and independence in news reporting. CLEAVAGES IN RUSSIA

• Religious Cleavages: The Russian Orthodox Church comprises approximately 80% of the population, with smaller communities representing various faiths facing challenges in their practices due to historical suppression and current government oversight. Regionally, Islamic practices are particularly significant in the North Caucasus, influencing local governance and identity politics.

• Ethnic Cleavages: Ethnic minorities play an essential role in regional distribution of power, particularly in republics like Tatarstan, while regions like Chechnya reflect ongoing conflicts over independence and governance struggles that challenge central authority. DEMOGRAPHICS AND ECONOMY OF RUSSIA

• Home to 146 million people, Russia is the largest country in the world, covering 17 million square miles and spanning 11 time zones. Urban areas host a majority (73%) of the population, concentrated in cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg.

• Classified as a rentier state, its economy heavily relies on the extraction of natural resources, especially oil and gas, generating revenue predominantly for the state's control rather than diversifying into other sectors, leading to structural economic vulnerabilities. PUBLIC POLICY AND FOREIGN RELATIONS

• In the contemporary era, Russia seeks to regain its influence, strategically aligning with neighboring countries through the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) formed in 2015 aimed at reducing trade barriers.

• Conflict with Ukraine escalated in 2014 when Russia annexed Crimea, drawing widespread international condemnation and sanctions from NATO and Western democracies, which exacerbated tensions and highlighted Russia's assertive foreign policy. SUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

• Russia engages with global institutions such as the UN, WTO, World Bank, and IMF to bolster its global standing; however, its relationships are often contentious, reflecting underlying geopolitical disputes with Western allies. CURRENT ISSUES

• Opposition to Putin: The atmosphere of dissent has amplified since 2020 with notable figures like Alexei Navalny facing imprisonment for perceived anti-government activities; protests have risen against governmental corruption and increasing authoritarianism.

• Russian Interference in U.S. Elections: Reports of Project Lakhta highlight efforts by Russian entities to influence the 2016 Presidential election through misinformation campaigns, demonstrating the sophistication of cyber warfare and the intersection of foreign policy with electoral integrity in democracies.