A&P Module 1
Anatomy- Study of the structure/physical form of the body- size, location, shape- relationship between body parts- what the body is
Subdivisions:
· Gross/macroscopic- can be studied without a microscopic
o Regional- specific regions of the body like the head or arm
o Surface- surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gently touching)
o Systemic- structure of specific systems
o Imaging- internal structures that can be seen using technology like X-ray
o Clinical- application of anatomy to the practice of health-related sciences
o Pathological- structure changes associated with disease
· Microscopic- microscopic structure of tissue
o Cytology- cellular structure and functions
o Histology- microscopic structure of tissues
· Developmental- growth and development of a person from fertilization to death
o Embryology- first 8 weeks of growth and development after fertilization
Physiology- Study of how the body functions- how organisms, organs, and cells work together- how the body works together, what a body does. Explains what, where, when why, and how things happen
Subdivisions:
Physiology of Body-how the body functions as a whole
· Exercise physiology- change in cell and organ function due to muscular activity
· Pathophysiology- functional changes associated with aging and disease
Physiology of Organ Systems- how each organ system functions
· Neurophysiology
· Endocrinology
· Cardiovascular physiology
· Immunology
· Respiratory physiology
· Renal physiology
Physiology at the Local Level- Cellular and molecular
· Molecular- functions of individual molecules like DNA and proteins
· Cellular- function of cells
Function always reflects the structure and what a structure does depends on its form
Subdivisions based on organ systems:
· Integumentary system- hair, skin, nails
o External coverage- boundary from the external environment
o Protects tissues
o Synthesizes vitamin D
o Houses receptors of pain and pressure
o Sweat and oil glands
· Skeletal system- bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons
o Protects and supports body organs
o Framework for muscles to attach to
o All blood elements are formed within bones
o Stores minerals like calcium
· Muscular system- skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, cardiac muscles
o Allows manipulation of the environment
o Locomotion
o Facial expression
o Maintains posture
o Produces heat
· Nervous system- brain, spinal cord, nerves
o Fast-acting control system of the body
o Responsible for responsiveness
o Responds to internal and external changes by activating muscle and glands
· Endocrine system- pancreas, thyroid glands, pituitary glands, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes
o Consists of hormone-secreting glands
o Slow-acting control system of the body
o Regulates processes like growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells
· Cardiovascular system- heart, blood vessels
o The heart pumps blood into blood vessels which transport it to organs/tissues and then back to the heart
o Blood carries O2, CO2, nutrients, and waste to & from cells
· Lymphatic & Immune system- lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils
o Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
o Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream and houses white blood cells for immunity
o Protects from invaders from the outside, attacks back, and changes body structures within the body
· Respiratory system- lungs, trachea, bronchi
o Keeps blood supplied with O2 and removes CO2
o Gas exchange happens through the walls of air sacs of the lungs
· Digestive system- stomach, large intestine, small intestine, liver, pancreas, mouth, esophagus
o Moves food through the GI tract
o Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
o Undigested foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
· Urinary system- kidneys, bladder, urethra
o Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
o Helps regulate the water, electrolyte & acid/base balance
· Reproductive system- testes, prostate gland, penis, ovaries, uterus, vagina mammary glands
o Production of offspring
o Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone
o Male ducts and glands aid in the delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract
o Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
o Accessary female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
o Mammary glands produce milk to nourish newborn
Levels of organization- each level builds upon the preceding one creating complexity and eventually the entire human body.
· Chemical- atoms and molecules
· Cellular- cells and organelles
· Tissue- groups of similar cells
· Organ- contains 2 or more types of tissues
· Organ system- organs that work closely together
· Organismal- all organ systems
Eight Necessary Life Functions (Do not need these things to be alive):
1. Boundaries- separates internal from external environment- is the integumentary system and protects all organ systems
Dysfunction: can cause infection from things such as burns and cuts
2. Movement (contractility)- allows the body to move internally and externally- muscular and skeletal systems
Dysfunction: can cause muscle weakness, paralysis
3. Responsiveness (irritability)- sense and respond to stimuli internally and externally- nervous and endocrine systems
Dysfunction: can cause a decline in reaction/response to things
4. Digestion- breakdown of food for absorption into blood- digestive system
Dysfunction: can cause nutrient deficiencies, weight loss, limited growth
5. Metabolism- all chemical reactions within the body- all organ systems
Dysfunction: Can affect growth, development, and energy production
6. Excretion- removal of waste from the body- urinary, digestive, and integumentary systems
Dysfunction: can cause impaired waste removal- lead to buildup and possible organ damage
7. Reproduction- production of offspring- reproductive system
Dysfunction: can cause infertility or developmental issues for offspring
8. Growth- increase of size/complexity of organism- all organ systems
Dysfunction: can cause abnormal growth and size variation of body/specific areas
Five Survival Needs:
1. Nutrients- needed for energy and building tissue
2. Oxygen- needed for breathing (cellular respiration)- produce energy
3. Water- needed for multiple functions including temperature regulation, transportation, chemical reactions with the body, etc.
4. Normal body temperature- need to keep at a safe temperature for optimal metabolic process/enzyme activity
5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure- needed for proper gas exchange in the lungs
Homeostasis- maintenance for a relatively stable internal environment despite external changes
· Nervous system- maintains homeostasis by reacting fast (nerve impulses) to problems and response is short-lived
· Endocrine system- maintains homeostasis through slow-acting responses using hormones within the bloodstream- response is long-lasting- can be days or even longer
Components of a Control Mechanism:
Receptor needs to sense stimuli properly à Control Center needs to interpret information correctly and send correct signals à Effector needs to respond quickly and correctly (if any of these components were damaged, they may fail to do what their supposed to do
Feedback Mechanisms:
Positive Feedback- increases the actions of the body (accelerates)- controls infrequent events- does not need continuous adjustments- short-lived
Ex. Blood clotting
Negative Feedback- reduces or shuts down stimulus for regulation – prevents sudden, severe changes in the body- opposes/negates normal stimulus- more common
Ex. Temperature regulation, sweat is released to cool the body, maintaining normal body temperature
Directional Terminology:
Anatomical Position- standard position for referencing the human body
· Body Erect
· Feet slightly apart
· Palms facing forward
· Arms at sides
Planes:
Sagittal Plane- divides the body into right and left portions
Frontal (Coronal) Plane- divides into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions
Transverse (Horizontal) Plane- divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions
Directional Terms:
· Anterior (front) vs Posterior (back)
· Distal (away from the origin of the body or attachment of limb) vs Proximal (close to the origin of the body or attachment of limb)
· Superior (above) vs Inferior (below)
· Lateral (away from midline) vs Medial (toward the midline)
· Superficial (towards the surface of the body) vs Deep (away from the surface of the body/internal)
Regional terms:
· Cervical- neck region
· Lumbar- lower back region
· Thoracic- chest region
· Brachial- arm region
· Humeral- upper arm region
· Radial- thumb side of the forearm
· Ulnar- little finger side of the forearm
· Abdominal- abdomen/abs region
· Femoral- thigh region
· Tibial- shinbone (medial part of the leg)
· Fibular- Fibula- lateral part of the leg
· Malleolar-ankle region
Body Cavities:
o Dorsal (back side of the body)- protects the nervous system- 2 subdivisions
o Cranial Cavity- encases the brain
o Vertebral Cavity- encases the spinal cord
Main organs: brain and spinal cord
o Ventral (front side of the body)- houses of internal organs- 2 subdivisions separated by the diaphragm
o Thoracic cavity- 4 subdivisions
o Pericardial Cavity- heart
o Left Pleural Cavity- left lung
o Right Pleural Cavity- right lung
o Mediastinum- major blood vessels, trachea, esophagus
o Abdominopelvic Cavity
o Abdominal Cavity- houses the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen and kidneys
o Pelvic Cavity- houses the bladder, productive organs, and rectum