StudyGuide l

Freedmen’s Bureau (1865)

The Freedmen’s Bureau was established by Congress in March 1865 to assist freed slaves and poor whites in the South after the Civil War. It provided food, housing, education, and legal assistance aimed at helping these populations transition to freedom. Additionally, the Bureau worked to negotiate labor contracts and ensure fair treatment of workers. Its efforts also included establishing schools and hospitals to improve the quality of life for those affected by the war.

Sharecropping

Sharecropping emerged as a prevalent agricultural practice in the South after the Civil War, in which landowners allowed tenants to farm their land in exchange for a share of the crop produced. This system often resulted in a cycle of debt, as sharecroppers had to borrow money for supplies from landowners, leading to economic exploitation. While sharecropping provided some work opportunities, it perpetuated the socioeconomic struggles of many African Americans and poor whites. It effectively kept land ownership and wealth in the hands of a few while preventing upward mobility for many.

Black Codes (1865)

The Black Codes were restrictive laws enacted in Southern states shortly after the Civil War, aiming to control the newly freed African American population. These laws sought to limit the civil rights of African Americans, including restrictions on voting, property ownership, and labor conditions. The Black Codes were a response to the societal changes brought about by emancipation and were designed to maintain white supremacy and economic control. As a result, they provoked significant backlash from abolitionists and eventually contributed to the rise of civil rights legislation.

Thirteenth Amendment (1865)

Ratified in December 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime. This landmark amendment was a crucial step toward civil rights and marked a shift in American history, fundamentally changing the social and economic landscape. The amendment aimed to ensure that the freedom of all individuals was recognized legally and constitutionally. Its passage was a vital victory for abolitionists and set the stage for later amendments and civil rights movements.

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves. It also provided all citizens with equal protection under the law and due process. This amendment aimed to rectify some injustices inflicted upon African Americans and safeguard their rights. It played a pivotal role in shaping civil rights legislation and has been fundamental in numerous Supreme Court cases addressing discrimination and equality.

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, aimed to protect the voting rights of African American men by prohibiting states from denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Although intended to ensure political equality, its implementation was often undermined by laws such as literacy tests and poll taxes. The amendment was a significant achievement during Reconstruction, yet, it set the stage for ongoing battles over voting rights that continued well into the 20th century.

Ku Klux Klan (1866)

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was founded in 1866 as a secret society in the South that aimed to undermine Reconstruction efforts and maintain white supremacy through intimidation and violence. The Klan targeted African Americans, as well as white allies who supported civil rights initiatives. Its activities included lynching, burning crosses, and other acts of terror, aiming to instill fear and suppress the rights of the black community. The Klan's legacy continues to influence discussions about race and domestic terrorism in America.

Redeemers

The Redeemers were a political coalition in the South that emerged in the late 1870s, consisting mainly of Democrats who sought to regain control from Republican rule established during Reconstruction. They championed white supremacy and sought to restore pre-war social norms. The Redeemers implemented policies that rolled back progress made during Reconstruction, including the introduction of Jim Crow laws and other discriminatory practices. Their influence marked a significant regression in civil rights for African Americans in the South and solidified the era of segregation that followed.

Bargain of 1877

The Bargain of 1877 was a pivotal compromise that resolved the contested 1876 presidential election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden. As part of this compromise, Democrats agreed to accept Hayes as president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending the Reconstruction era. This deal led to increased segregation and the disenfranchisement of African Americans in Southern states, as Northern interests prioritized political stability over civil rights.

Vertical Integration

Vertical integration is a business strategy where a company takes control of multiple stages of production or the supply chain. This approach allows companies to reduce costs, increase efficiencies, and gain better control over their product quality. Prominent examples include Andrew Carnegie’s steel companies, which controlled not only the steel mills but also the iron ore mines and railroads, enabling him to produce steel at unprecedented low cost and high quality.

Captains of Industry

The term "captains of industry" refers to prominent business leaders in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who played a significant role in advancing the U.S. economy through innovation and entrepreneurship. They are often contrasted with "robber barons," as they were seen as contributing positively to society through their business practices and philanthropic efforts. Figures like John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and J.P. Morgan exemplified this term, as they were instrumental in establishing large enterprises that transformed industries.

Robber Barons

"Robber barons" is a term used to describe unscrupulous business men in the late 19th century who amassed wealth through exploitative practices. This included monopolistic behaviors, deceptive business tactics, and the manipulation of labor markets. Critics argue that while they contributed to industrial growth, the consequences of their actions often led to social inequalities and harsh working conditions for laborers, prompting calls for reforms and regulations during the Progressive Era.

Dawes Act (1887)

The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land. This act dismantled communal tribal landholding and encouraged Native Americans to adopt farming practices. While it intended to improve the economic conditions of Native Americans, it resulted in the loss of tribal lands and culture, as many Native Americans sold their allotted land under pressure and disease, resulting in further disenfranchisement.

Ghost Dance and Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)

The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement among Native Americans in the late 19th century, which aimed to restore the traditional life and tribes displaced by American expansion. This movement was interpreted by U.S. authorities as a threat leading to the tragic Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890, where U.S. troops killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux, marking a violent end to Native American resistance in the Great Plains and signifying a devastating blow to Native American identity and cultural practices.

Indian Boarding Schools

Indian boarding schools, established in the late 19th century, were designed to forcibly assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture. Children were taken from their families and communities, stripped of their languages and cultural identities, and educated in Western values and practices. This practice aimed to erase Indigenous cultures, leading to generational trauma and loss of traditional knowledge.

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism applied Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution to societies, suggesting that social progress comes through the survival of the fittest in economic and social realms. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was used to justify the wealth of industrialists as a natural order, while also rationalizing the social inequalities produced through industrialization. Critics of social Darwinism argue that it disregards the social responsibilities of the wealthy to assist the less fortunate, reinforcing class divides.

Knights of Labor 1869

The Knights of Labor was one of the first significant labor organizations in the United States, founded in 1869. It sought to unite all workers, regardless of skill level, and advocated for social and economic reforms, including the eight-hour workday and equal pay for equal work. The Knights were notable for their inclusive approach, welcoming women and minorities, and played a prominent role in the labor movement until the 1890s, when internal conflicts and adverse events like the Haymarket Affair led to their decline.

Social Gospel

The Social Gospel was a religious movement that emerged in the late 19th century, emphasizing the application of Christian principles to social problems, particularly poverty and inequality. Leaders of this movement advocated for social justice, labor rights, and the welfare of the poor, thereby energizing various reform movements, such as those advocating for women's suffrage and the abolition of child labor. Its influence can still be seen in various social and political endeavors aimed at justice and equality today.

Haymarket Affair 1886

The Haymarket Affair was a labor protest in Chicago in May 1886 that turned violent when a bomb was thrown at police, leading to deaths and injuries. The event highlighted the growing tensions between labor movements advocating for rights, such as the eight-hour workday, and law enforcement. The aftermath resulted in a crackdown on labor organizations and the public's growing mistrust of militant labor movements, setting back the cause of labor rights for many years.

The Peoples Party/Populists

The Peoples Party, also known as the Populists, emerged in the late 19th century as a political response to the struggles faced by farmers and working-class individuals. Formed in 1891, the movement aimed to address economic inequalities and advocate for the rights of the common people. Some of its key demands included the regulation of railroads, the establishment of a graduated income tax, and the direct election of U.S. Senators. Although the party waned in influence after the 1896 election, its legacy influenced later reforms within the Progressive Movement that sought to further empower the average citizen.

Free Silver

The Free Silver movement gained traction in the 1890s, advocating for the unlimited coinage of silver to enhance the money supply and stimulate the economy. Supporters argued that increasing the money supply would help farmers pay off debts and counteract deflationary pressures. This movement was particularly popular among agrarian communities struggling with low crop prices and rising debts. The debate over Free Silver intensified during the 1896 election, where it became a central issue, notably championed by William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee.

Disenfranchisement

Disenfranchisement refers to the various methods employed, particularly in the South, to suppress the voting rights of African Americans and, in some cases, poor white citizens following the Reconstruction era. Tactics such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses were implemented explicitly to exclude black voters from the electoral process. This systemic disenfranchisement laid the groundwork for decades of racial segregation and inequality in the United States, culminating in the Jim Crow laws. The effects of disenfranchisement remained profound, contributing to ongoing battles for civil rights throughout the 20th century.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." The case arose when Homer Plessy, a mixed-race man, was arrested for sitting in a whites-only railway car. The court's decision effectively legalized segregation in public facilities and provided a legal justification for state-sponsored discrimination across the South. This ruling had far-reaching implications, solidifying racial segregation as a societal norm and influencing subsequent civil rights challenges until it was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

Lynching

Lynching refers to the extrajudicial killing of individuals, particularly African Americans, primarily in the southern United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These acts of violence were often carried out by mobs and were justified under the false pretense of maintaining social order or punishing alleged crimes. The frequency of lynching reflected the pervasive racism and social tensions of the time, instilling fear within black communities and serving as a brutal enforcement mechanism for white supremacy. Anti-lynching campaigns eventually emerged, seeking justice and the end of such heinous acts.

New Immigrants (1890s)

The term "New Immigrants" refers to the wave of immigrants who arrived in the United States during the 1890s, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe, including countries such as Italy, Poland, and Russia. Unlike earlier immigrants who were mostly from Western Europe, these newcomers faced significant cultural and economic challenges, including discrimination and harsh working conditions. Many settled in urban areas, contributing to the industrial labor force and transforming American society. Their arrival sparked nativist sentiments among some segments of the population, leading to restrictive immigration policies in the years that followed.

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first federal law to prohibit immigration based on ethnicity, specifically targeting Chinese laborers. This act was a response to widespread anti-Chinese sentiment and economic competition felt by American workers on the West Coast. The Exclusion Act denied Chinese laborers the right to enter the United States and established a precedent for future immigration restrictions based on nationality. It was not fully repealed until 1943, highlighting the persistent racial discrimination against Chinese immigrants and their contributions to American society.

Booker T. Washington

Booker T. Washington was a prominent African American educator, author, and social leader in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known for his philosophy of accommodation, Washington emphasized vocational education and self-help as means for African Americans to attain economic independence and improve their social status. He founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, which focused on practical skills for black students. Although his approach was criticized by contemporaries like W.E.B. Du Bois for being too conciliatory to white supremacy, Washington's influence on education and race relations set important foundations for future civil rights movements.

Spanish-American War 1898

The Spanish-American War was a brief conflict fought between the United States and Spain in 1898, primarily over issues of Cuban independence and Spanish colonial rule. The war marked a turning point in U.S. foreign policy, transitioning the nation from isolationism to a more assertive global presence. Following a swift military campaign, the U.S. emerged victorious, acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marking the rise of the U.S. as an imperial power. This expansion sparked debates about American imperialism and the responsibilities of the U.S. in managing its newly acquired colonies.

The Philippine War

The Philippine War (1899-1902), also known as the Philippine-American War, was a conflict between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries who sought independence following the Spanish-American War. The war was marked by intense guerrilla warfare and significant casualties, leading to a protracted and brutal military engagement. Despite initial hopes for American support of Filipino independence, the U.S. aimed to establish control over the Philippines. The conflict ultimately reflected the complexities of American imperialism and its impact on native populations, leading to a legacy of resistance and historical trauma in the Philippines.

Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire (1911)

The Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire was a tragic industrial disaster that occurred on March 25, 1911, in New York City. It resulted in the deaths of 146 garment workers, most of whom were young immigrant women. The fire broke out on the top floors of the factory, where unsafe working conditions, such as locked exits and lack of fire escapes, contributed to the high casualty rate. This catastrophic event sparked public outrage and led to significant reforms in workplace safety regulations, labor laws, and fire codes across the United States.

Muckrakers

Muckrakers were investigative journalists in the early 20th century who aimed to expose corruption, social injustices, and abuses in various sectors, including government, business, and society. Their work played a crucial role during the Progressive Era by shedding light on issues such as child labor, unsafe working conditions, and political corruption. Prominent muckrakers like Upton Sinclair and Ida Tarbell used their writing to advocate for reforms and raise public awareness, leading to impactful changes in legislation and social attitudes towards various problems.

The Jungle (1906)

"The Jungle" is a novel written by Upton Sinclair that was published in 1906. It is a significant work that highlighted the harsh conditions faced by immigrant workers in the meatpacking industry in Chicago. Sinclair's vivid depictions of unsanitary practices in slaughterhouses shocked the public, leading to a national outcry for food safety regulations. The novel was instrumental in the eventual passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act in 1906, which aimed to ensure safer food production practices for consumers.

Scientific management

Scientific management, also known as Taylorism, is a theory of management that analyzes workflows to improve efficiency and productivity. Developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the early 20th century, this approach emphasized the use of scientific methods to determine the most efficient ways to complete tasks. It involved the systematic study of work processes, time-motion studies, and the standardization of tools and tasks. While scientific management increased productivity in many industries, it also faced criticism for dehumanizing workers and reducing their roles to mere cogs in a machine.

Seventeenth Amendment (1913)

The Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1913, established the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people rather than by state legislatures. This amendment was a key reform of the Progressive Era aimed at reducing corruption and increasing democratic participation in government. It allowed voters in each state to elect their Senators, thereby making them more accountable to the public. The amendment was part of a broader movement to enhance democratic practices and limit the influence of political machines in American politics.

Jane Addams and Hull House (1889)

Jane Addams was a renowned social reformer and activist who co-founded the Hull House in 1889 in Chicago. Hull House was one of the first settlement houses in the United States, offering a range of social services to immigrants and the urban poor, including education, childcare, and cultural programs. Addams' work at Hull House aimed to improve the living conditions of the immigrant community and promote social justice. She became a prominent figure in the women's suffrage movement and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 for her efforts in promoting peace and social reforms.

Sixteenth Amendment (1913)

The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, allows the federal government to levy an income tax on individuals. This amendment was significant in expanding the federal government's revenue sources and providing a means to fund various public services and programs. Prior to this amendment, income taxes were considered unconstitutional. The passage of the Sixteenth Amendment marked a major shift in U.S. fiscal policy, allowing for a progressive tax structure that aimed to alleviate income inequality and better distribute wealth across the nation.

Hull house 1889

Hull House, founded by Jane Addams in 1889 in Chicago, was one of the first settlement houses in the United States. It provided vital social services such as education, childcare, and cultural programs to immigrants and the urban poor. The establishment of Hull House aimed to improve living conditions in the community and promote social reform, making Addams a key figure in the social justice movement.

Lusitania (1915)

The RMS Lusitania was a British ocean liner that was sunk by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, during World War I. The sinking resulted in the deaths of 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans, and caused public outrage in the United States. This event was pivotal in shifting public opinion against Germany and contributed to the U.S. entering the war in 1917.

Zimmerman Telegram (1917)

The Zimmerman Telegram was a secret diplomatic communication sent by the German Empire to Mexico in January 1917. The message proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico in the event of the U.S. entering World War I against Germany. When the telegram was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence, its publication inflamed American public opinion against Germany, leading to increased support for U.S. involvement in the war.

Alice Paul

Alice Paul was a prominent American suffragist, feminist, and women's rights activist who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement. Born in 1885, she advocated for the passage of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote in 1920. Paul's strategies included organizing parades, protests, and hunger strikes, bringing national attention to the suffrage issue and influencing the passage of new laws that advanced women's rights.

The Espionage Act of 1917

Enacted during World War I, the Espionage Act of 1917 aimed to prevent interference with military operations or recruitment, and to prevent the disclosure of national defense information. It imposed severe penalties, including long prison sentences, for those found guilty of certain offenses, such as espionage or aiding the enemy. The Act has been controversial for limiting free speech and for its application against anti-war activists during the war.

The Sedition Act of 1918

The Sedition Act of 1918 extended the penalties of the Espionage Act to cover broader speech, specifically targeting any disloyal, profane, or abusive language about the U.S. government, Constitution, or military. Critics argued that it suppressed dissent and violated First Amendment rights. It was used to prosecute numerous individuals, including socialists and labor leaders, during a period of heightened nationalism and war fervor.

NAACP (1909)

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909 to combat racial discrimination and promote civil rights for African Americans. Established in response to the ongoing violence against Black individuals and the lack of civil rights protections, the NAACP aimed to secure political, educational, social, and economic equality. It played a significant role in legal battles against segregation, voter suppression, and discrimination, becoming a leading voice for civil rights.

The Great Migration (1910-1920)

The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West during the early 20th century, particularly between 1910 and 1920. This migration was driven by the search for better job opportunities, escape from racial violence, and the desire for a more equitable life. It significantly transformed the demographic landscape of American cities and had lasting impacts on cultural movements, including the Harlem Renaissance.

The Red Scare (1919-1920)

The Red Scare was a period of intense fear of communism and radical leftism in the United States following World War I. Fueled by the Russian Revolution and domestic labor unrest, the government and public responded with widespread suspicion, police raids, and deportations of suspected radicals. The Red Scare highlighted the tensions between traditional American values and the perceived threat of foreign ideologies, leading to significant civil rights abuses against dissenters.

Sacco-Vanzetti Case (1920)

The Sacco-Vanzetti case involved the trial and execution of two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, who were accused of robbery and murder. The trial was marked by significant controversy over the fairness of the proceedings, with claims that the defendants were targeted due to their anarchist beliefs and immigrant status. Public opinion was divided, and despite evidence that many viewed as circumstantial at best, they were ultimately convicted and executed in 1927, becoming symbols of injustice and anti-immigrant sentiment in America.

Rise of the Stock Market Crash

The rise leading to the stock market crash of 1929 was characterized by speculative investments and an economic boom in the 1920s, often referred to as the Roaring Twenties. Investors increasingly bought stocks on margin, creating an unsustainable bubble in stock prices. This reckless speculation culminated in the stock market crash on October 29, 1929, known as Black Tuesday, which precipitated the Great Depression and led to widespread economic hardship.

Flapper

The flapper was a cultural phenomenon of the 1920s, representing a new generation of women who embraced a more liberated lifestyle. Characterized by their distinctive fashion—such as short dresses, bobbed hair, and a carefree attitude—flappers defied traditional gender norms. They were often associated with jazz music, dancing, and a rejection of societal restrictions, symbolizing the changing roles of women in a post-World War I society.

Hays Code (1922)

The Hays Code, officially known as the Motion Picture Production Code, was implemented in 1922 as a set of moral guidelines for the production of films in the United States. It aimed to ensure that films adhered to certain standards of morality and decency, prohibiting content considered offensive or inappropriate, such as excessive violence, sexual content, and blasphemy. The code significantly influenced Hollywood filmmaking until its decline in the late 1960s, shaping the portrayal of various social issues on screen.