The Americas to 1200: AP W 2.1
First Americans
Migration from Siberia to Alaska via land bridge occurred about 15,000 years ago, spreading across the Americas by 8,000 B.C.E.
Farming began in Central America by 3000 B.C.E., leading to crops like corn, beans, and squash.
Major civilizations developed in Central America and along the west coast of South America.
The Olmecs (Central America)
Flourished from 1200 to 400 B.C.E. on Central Mexico's east coast river valleys, considered a potential "parent civilization."
Cities like San Lorenzo and L63a Venta were laid out on a north-south axis with central earthen mounds for gods.
Polytheistic religion emphasized heavens, earth, underworld, animals, and a feathered serpent deity, influencing later Maya and Aztecs.
Innovations included an earliest form of glyphic writing and a mathematical system that incorporated the concept of zero.
Traded obsidian and jade; created massive stone heads (up to 10 feet tall, over 8 tons) believed to represent kings.
Norte Chico (South America)
Discovered in the 1990s as a civilization older than the Olmecs, flourishing from 3500 to ~1800 B.C.E. along coastal Peru.
Economy based on irrigation from Andes snowmelt, farming (corn, sweet potatoes, cotton), and ocean resources.
Cities featured large earthen and stone mounds for religious ceremonies.
Developed quipu (knotted ropes for numerical and possibly other information) but had no writing or pottery; few visual arts or signs of warfare.
Chavin (South America)
Rose from the ceremonial city of Chavin de Huántar in the northern Andes, flourishing from 1000 to 200 B.C.E.
Integrated rainforest gods (jaguars, crocodiles, snakes) with Andean hallucinogenic cactus use; priests may have been rulers.
Known for vibrant art depicting gods, skilled metalwork (gold, silver, copper), pottery, and cloth.
Its central temple featured advanced engineering (drainage, air shafts, hidden passages).
Expanded as a religious and cultural zone via trade, not a political empire; declined by 200 B.C.E.
Similarities and Differences in the Americas
Similarities: Common massive temple mounds, corn cultivation, and some religious beliefs.
Differences: Olmec glyphic writing did not spread south; Chavin metalwork did not fully migrate north.
Geographic Factors: North-south continental axis, diverse climate zones, and challenging terrain (narrow, tropical, mountainous Central America) hindered extensive cultural exchange.
Teotihuacan (Central America)
Founded around 150 B.C.E. northeast of Mexico City, it became the largest city in the Americas with over 125,000 people.
Features enormous Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, a Feathered Serpent pyramid, and a broad north-south Avenue of the Dead.
Origins possibly linked to refugees from a volcanic explosion; governance is debated, but spacious apartment complexes for commoners suggest broad well-being.
Exerted significant trade and cultural influence, exporting obsidian; practiced human and animal sacrifice.
Declined after the 536 C.E. supervolcano eruption, potentially exacerbated by internal rebellion, and was abandoned by the 9th century C.E.
Maya City-States (Central America)
Sustained large populations through intensive agriculture (terracing, swamp draining, slash-and-burn) primarily growing "Three Sisters": corn, beans, and squash.
Rulers, claiming divine descent, governed with scribes and priests; society paid taxes in crops, labor, and military service.
Practiced polytheistic religion, with priests holding significant social standing.
Developed advanced astronomy (eclipses, moon phases) and maintained three calendars; elaborated Olmec math and writing with over 850 glyphs.
Characterized by lively arts carved into monuments and written in books; utilized stone tools rather than extensively developed metalcraft.
Began to decline after 900 C.E. due to population pressure, agricultural strain, and drought, leading to a shift to smaller, rural settlements, though some northern cities thrived.
The Toltecs (Central America)
Prominent in central Mexico in the 10th century as Maya city-states declined, carrying on many Mesoamerican cultural traits.
Capital city of Tollan/Tula had a population of at least 30,000 and shared urban layouts and the feathered serpent god (Quetzalcoatl) with the Maya.
Known for strong obsidian trade and highly skilled craftsmen; "tolteca" became synonymous with "artisan" for the Aztecs.
Fierce warriors who extracted tribute and captives; their influence declined in the 12th century for unclear reasons, and Tollan was largely destroyed.
Greatly admired by the Aztecs, who adopted many practices and claimed descent.
Moche (South America)
Carried on Chavin culture and Norte Chico economy from 200 B.C.E. to 700 C.E. in northern Peru.
Economy based on irrigated fields (corn, cotton) and ocean resources; debate over whether it was a confederation or empire.
Built monumental structures like the Temple of the Sun (over 140 million adobe bricks) and the Temple of the Moon, sites of human sacrifice.
Society included priestesses and rulers; arts depicted people, gods, and animals in motion (murals, metalwork, pottery).
Declined during a 6th century C.E. dry cycle with sand filling irrigation canals; succeeded by the Chimor civilization.
Nazca (South America)
Occupied a dry area of southern Peru from 100 B.C.E. to 800 C.E., sustaining themselves with intensive underground irrigation.
Comprised a confederation of chiefdoms; notable for their skill in rudimentary brain surgery (trepanation).
Most famous for the "Nazca Lines," enormous geoglyphs created on the desert floor by revealing lighter soil underneath, visible only from the sky.
The purpose of these lines (e.g., astronomical calendars, ritual pathways, messages to gods, marking water faults) remains a subject of debate.
First Americans
Migration from Siberia to Alaska via land bridge occurred about 15,000 years ago, spreading across the Americas by 8,000 B.C.E. This marked the initial settlement.
Farming began in Central America by 3000 B.C.E., leading to the cultivation of crops like corn, beans, and squash.
Major civilizations subsequently developed in Central America and along the west coast of South America, generally after farming was established.
The Olmecs (Central America)
Flourished from 1200 to 400 B.C.E. on Central Mexico's east coast river valleys, considered a potential "parent civilization" during this period.
Cities like San Lorenzo (prospered until \sim900 B.C.E.) and La Venta (rose around 900 B.C.E. onward) were laid out on a north-south axis with central earthen mounds for gods.
Polytheistic religion emphasized heavens, earth, underworld, animals, and a feathered serpent deity throughout their reign, influencing later Maya and Aztecs.
Innovations, developed within their period of influence, included an earliest form of glyphic writing and a mathematical system that incorporated the concept of zero.
Traded obsidian and jade; created massive stone heads (up to 10 feet tall, over 8 tons) believed to represent kings, primarily between 1200 and 900 B.C.E.
Norte Chico (South America)
Discovered in the 1990s as a civilization older than the Olmecs, flourishing from 3500 to \sim1800 B.C.E. along coastal Peru.
Economy based on irrigation from Andes snowmelt, farming (corn, sweet potatoes, cotton), and ocean resources, sustained throughout its existence.
Cities featured large earthen and stone mounds for religious ceremonies, constructed during their peak.
Developed quipu (knotted ropes for numerical and possibly other information) but had no writing or pottery; few visual arts or signs of warfare, characteristic of their entire period.
Chavin (South America)
Rose from the ceremonial city of Chavin de Huántar in the northern Andes, flourishing from 1000 to 200 B.C.E.
Integrated rainforest gods (jaguars, crocodiles, snakes) with Andean hallucinogenic cactus use, a practice evident throughout their cultural influence; priests may have been rulers.
Known for vibrant art depicting gods, skilled metalwork (gold, silver, copper), pottery, and cloth, produced during their flourishing period.
Its central temple featured advanced engineering (drainage, air shafts, hidden passages), a testament to their architectural skill before 200 B.C.E.
Expanded as a religious and cultural zone via trade, not a political empire; declined by 200 B.C.E.
Similarities and Differences in the Americas
Similarities: Common massive temple mounds, corn cultivation, and some religious beliefs, observed across various cultures and timeframes.
Differences: Olmec glyphic writing (pre-400 B.C.E.) did not spread south; Chavin metalwork (post-1000 B.C.E.) did not fully migrate north.
Geographic Factors: North-south continental axis, diverse climate zones, and challenging terrain (narrow, tropical, mountainous Central America) hindered extensive cultural exchange throughout ancient history.
Teotihuacan (Central America)
Founded around 150 B.C.E. northeast of Mexico City, it became the largest city in the Americas by 600 C.E. with over 125,000 people.
Features enormous Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, a Feathered Serpent pyramid, and a broad north-south Avenue of the Dead, constructed and used during its active period.
Origins possibly linked to refugees from a volcanic explosion around the time of its founding; governance is debated, but spacious apartment complexes for commoners suggest broad well-being up to its decline.
Exerted significant trade and cultural influence, exporting obsidian, particularly strong from about 1 C.E. to 500 C.E.; practiced human and animal sacrifice.
Declined after the 536 C.E. supervolcano eruption, potentially exacerbated by internal rebellion, and was abandoned by the 9th century C.E.
Maya City-States (Central America)
Sustained large populations through intensive agriculture (terracing, swamp draining, slash-and-burn) primarily growing "Three Sisters": corn, beans, and squash, methods utilized for centuries.
Rulers, claiming divine descent, governed with scribes and priests; society paid taxes in crops, labor, and military service, a system maintained for generations.
Practiced polytheistic religion, with priests holding significant social standing throughout their classical period (approx. 250 C.E. to 900 C.E.).
Developed advanced astronomy (eclipses, moon phases) and maintained three calendars; elaborated Olmec math and writing with over 850 glyphs, flourishing especially between 300 and 900 C.E.
Characterized by lively arts carved into monuments and written in books from their classical era; utilized stone tools rather than extensively developed metalcraft.
Began to decline after 900 C.E. due to population pressure, agricultural strain, and drought, leading to a shift to smaller, rural settlements, though some northern cities thrived until the Spanish arrival.
The Toltecs (Central America)
Became prominent in central Mexico in the 10th century (circa 900-1200 C.E.) as Maya city-states declined, carrying on many Mesoamerican cultural traits.
Capital city of Tollan/Tula had a population of at least 30,000 during its peak and shared urban layouts and the feathered serpent god (Quetzalcoatl) with the Maya.
Known for strong obsidian trade and highly skilled craftsmen throughout their prominence; "tolteca" became synonymous with "artisan" for the Aztecs later.
Fierce warriors who extracted tribute and captives during their expansion; their influence declined in the 12th century, and Tollan was largely destroyed by about \sim1150 C.E.
Greatly admired by the Aztecs (who emerged later, around 1300 C.E.), who adopted many practices and claimed descent from the Toltecs.
Moche (South America)
Carried on Chavin culture and Norte Chico economy from 200 B.C.E. to 700 C.E. in northern Peru, establishing complex societies.
Economy based on irrigated fields (corn, cotton) and ocean resources throughout their span; debate over whether it was a confederation or empire.
Built monumental structures like the Temple of the Sun (over 140 million adobe bricks) and the Temple of the Moon, sites of human sacrifice, primarily constructed between 100 C.E. and 600 C.E.
Society included priestesses and rulers; arts depicted people, gods, and animals in motion (murals, metalwork, pottery) throughout their cultural period.
Declined during a 6th century C.E. dry cycle (specifically around 550-600 C.E.) with sand filling irrigation canals; succeeded by the Chimor civilization which rose around 900 C.E.
Nazca (South America)
Occupied a dry area of southern Peru from 100 B.C.E. to 800 C.E., sustaining themselves with intensive underground irrigation systems developed and maintained over centuries.
Comprised a confederation of chiefdoms; notable for their skill in rudimentary brain surgery (trepanation), a medical practice from around 200 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.
Most famous for the "Nazca Lines," enormous geoglyphs created on the desert floor by revealing lighter soil underneath, visible only from the sky, with the majority created between 450 and 650 C.E.
The purpose of these lines (e.g., astronomical calendars, ritual pathways, messages to gods, marking water faults) remains a subject of debate.
First Americans
Migration from Siberia to Alaska via a land bridge began approximately 15,000 years ago, reaching across the Americas by 8,000 B.C.E., marking the initial human settlement.
Farming initiated in Central America around 3000 B.C.E., leading to the cultivation of staple crops such as corn, beans, and squash.
Major civilizations subsequently developed in Central America and along the west coast of South America, beginning after the establishment of agriculture.
The Olmecs (Central America)
Flourished from 1200 to 400 B.C.E. in Central Mexico's east coast river valleys, considered a potential "parent civilization" due to their broad influence.
Key cities included San Lorenzo (prospered until \sim900 B.C.E.) and La Venta (rose around 900 B.C.E.), both laid out on a north-south axis with central earthen mounds for religious purposes.
Practiced polytheistic religion, emphasizing heavens, earth, underworld, animals, and a feathered serpent deity, beliefs that influenced later Maya and Aztecs.
Innovations, developed within their period of influence (1200-400 B.C.E.), included an early form of glyphic writing and a mathematical system incorporating the concept of zero.
Traded obsidian and jade; created massive stone heads (up to 10 feet tall, over 8 tons) believed to represent rulers, primarily between 1200 and 900 B.C.E.
Norte Chico (South America)
Discovered in the 1990s, identified as a civilization older than the Olmecs, flourishing from 3500 to \sim1800 B.C.E. along coastal Peru.
Economy relied on irrigation from Andes snowmelt, farming (corn, sweet potatoes, cotton), and ocean resources throughout its existence.
Cities featured large earthen and stone mounds, constructed for religious ceremonies during their peak.
Developed quipu (knotted ropes for numerical and possibly other information) but lacked a formal writing system, pottery, or significant visual arts; showed few signs of warfare.
Chavin (South America)
Rose from the ceremonial city of Chavin de Huántar in the northern Andes, flourishing from 1000 to 200 B.C.E.
Integrated rainforest gods (jaguars, crocodiles, snakes) with Andean hallucinogenic cactus use; priests likely held ruling power.
Noted for vibrant art depicting gods, skilled metalwork (gold, silver, copper), pottery, and cloth production during their flourishing period.
Its central temple featured advanced engineering, including drainage systems, air shafts, and hidden passages, completed before 200 B.C.E.
Expanded its religious and cultural influence through trade networks, not as a political empire; declined by 200 B.C.E.
Similarities and Differences in the Americas
Similarities: Common elements included massive temple mounds, corn cultivation, and certain religious beliefs observed across various ancient American cultures.
Differences: Olmec glyphic writing (pre-400 B.C.E.) did not extend south; Chavin metalwork (post-1000 B.C.E.) did not fully migrate north.
Geographic Factors: A north-south continental axis, diverse climate zones, and challenging terrain (narrow, tropical, mountainous Central America) hindered extensive cultural and technological exchange throughout ancient history.
Teotihuacan (Central America)
Founded around 150 B.C.E. northeast of Mexico City, it became the largest city in the Americas by 600 C.E. with a population exceeding 125,000 residents.
Features enormous Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, a Feathered Serpent pyramid, and a broad north-south Avenue of the Dead, constructed and utilized during its active period.
Origins possibly linked to refugees from a volcanic explosion around its founding; governance is debated, but spacious apartment complexes for commoners suggest widespread well-being until its decline.
Exerted significant trade and cultural influence, exporting obsidian, particularly strong from about 1 C.E. to 500 C.E.; practiced human and animal sacrifice.
Declined after the 536 C.E. supervolcano eruption, potentially exacerbated by internal rebellion, and was largely abandoned by the 9th century C.E.
Maya City-States (Central America)
Sustained large populations through intensive agriculture (terracing, swamp draining, slash-and-burn) primarily growing "Three Sisters": corn, beans, and squash, methods utilized for centuries.
Rulers, claiming divine descent, governed with scribes and priests; society paid taxes in crops, labor, and military service, a system maintained for generations.
Practiced a polytheistic religion, with priests holding significant social standing throughout their classical period (approx. 250 C.E. to 900 C.E.).
Developed advanced astronomy (predicting eclipses, tracking moon phases) and maintained three calendars; elaborated Olmec math and writing with over 850 glyphs, flourishing especially between 300 and 900 C.E.
Characterized by lively arts carved into monuments and written in books from their classical era; utilized stone tools due to limited metalcraft development.
Began to decline after 900 C.E. due to population pressure, agricultural strain, and drought, leading to a shift to smaller, rural settlements, though some northern cities thrived until the Spanish arrival (early 16th century C.E.).
The Toltecs (Central America)
Became prominent in central Mexico in the 10th century (circa 900-1200 C.E.) as Maya city-states declined, carrying on many Mesoamerican cultural traits.
Capital city of Tollan/Tula had a population of at least 30,000 during its peak; shared urban layouts and the feathered serpent god (Quetzalcoatl) with later Maya and Aztecs.
Known for strong obsidian trade and highly skilled craftsmen throughout their prominence; "tolteca" became synonymous with "artisan" for the Aztecs.
Fierce warriors who extracted tribute and captives during their expansion; their influence declined in the 12th century, and Tollan was largely destroyed by about \sim1150 C.E.
Greatly admired by the Aztecs, who emerged later (around 1300 C.E.), adopting many Toltec practices and claiming descent.
Moche (South America)
Carried on Chavin culture and Norte Chico economic practices from 200 B.C.E. to 700 C.E. in northern Peru, establishing complex societies.
Economy based on irrigated fields (corn, cotton) and ocean resources throughout their span; debate exists over whether it was a confederation or an empire.
Built monumental structures like the Temple of the Sun (over 140 million adobe bricks) and the Temple of the Moon, sites of human sacrifice, primarily constructed between 100 C.E. and 600 C.E.
Society included priestesses and rulers; arts depicted people, gods, and animals in motion (murals, metalwork, pottery) throughout their cultural period.
Declined during a 6th century C.E. dry cycle (specifically around 550-600 C.E.) which caused sand to fill irrigation canals; succeeded by the Chimor civilization, which rose around 900 C.E.
Nazca (South America)
Occupied a dry area of southern Peru from 100 B.C.E. to 800 C.E., sustaining themselves with intensive underground irrigation systems developed and maintained over centuries.
Comprised a confederation of chiefdoms; notable for their skill in rudimentary brain surgery (trepanation), a medical practice from around 200 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.
Most famous for the "Nazca Lines," enormous geoglyphs created on the desert floor by revealing lighter soil underneath, visible only from the sky, with the majority created between 450 and 650 C.E.
The specific purpose of these lines (e.g., astronomical calendars, ritual pathways, messages to gods, marking water faults) remains a subject of academic debate.
The Americas to 1200: AP W 2.1
Migration from Siberia to Alaska via a land bridge commenced approximately 15,000 years ago; populations spread across the Americas by 8,000 B.C.E.
Farming started in Central America around 3000 B.C.E., leading to corn, beans, and squash cultivation.
Major civilizations subsequently developed in Central America and along South America's west coast after agricultural establishment.
The Olmecs (Central America)
The Olmecs flourished 1200-400 B.C.E. in Central Mexico's east coast river valleys, identified as a "parent civilization" due to broad influence.
Key cities, San Lorenzo (prospered until
~900 B.C.E.) and La Venta (emerging
~900 B.C.E.), featured a north-south axis with central earthen mounds for religious use.Olmec polytheistic religion emphasized heavens, earth, underworld, animals, and a feathered serpent deity, influencing later Maya and Aztec beliefs.
Innovations (developed 1200-400 B.C.E.) included an early glyphic writing system and a mathematical system with zero.
Obsidian and jade were traded. Massive stone heads (up to 10 feet tall, over 8 tons), depicting rulers, were created primarily 1200-900 B.C.E.
Norte Chico (South America)
Discovered in the 1990s, Norte Chico is older than the Olmecs, flourishing 3500-
~1800 B.C.E. along coastal Peru.Its economy, sustained 3500-
~1800 B.C.E., relied on Andes snowmelt irrigation, farming (corn, sweet potatoes, cotton), and ocean resources.Cities featured large earthen and stone mounds for religious ceremonies, constructed during their peak 3500-
~1800 B.C.E. period.Quipu (knotted ropes for numerical/other information) developed, but Norte Chico lacked formal writing, pottery, or extensive visual arts; few signs of warfare were evident.
Chavin (South America)
The Chavin culture rose from the ceremonial city of Chavin de Huántar in the northern Andes, flourishing 1000-200 B.C.E.
Rainforest gods (jaguars, crocodiles, snakes) integrated with Andean hallucinogenic cactus use, prevalent 1000-200 B.C.E.; priests likely ruled.
Vibrant art depicting gods, skilled metalwork (gold, silver, copper), pottery, and cloth characterized their 1000-200 B.C.E. flourishing period.
Their central temple featured advanced engineering (drainage, air shafts, hidden passages), completed before 200 B.C.E.
Chavin expanded culturally and religiously via trade, not as a political empire; its influence declined by 200 B.C.E.
Similarities and Differences in the Americas
Similarities: Massive temple mounds, corn cultivation, and certain religious beliefs were common across ancient American cultures.
Differences: Olmec glyphic writing (pre-400 B.C.E.) did not spread south; Chavin metalwork (post-1000 B.C.E.) did not migrate north.
Geographic Factors: Geographic factors, including a north-south continental axis, diverse climate zones, and challenging terrain in Central America, hindered extensive cultural/technological exchange historically.
Teotihuacan (Central America)
Teotihuacan, founded around 150 B.C.E. northeast of Mexico City, became the largest city in the Americas by 600 C.E. (over 125,000 residents).
It features enormous Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, a Feathered Serpent pyramid, and a broad north-south Avenue of the Dead, constructed and used 150 B.C.E. - 9th century C.E.
Origins may link to refugees from a volcanic explosion around its 150 B.C.E. founding. Governance is debated, but widespread commoner well-being suggested by spacious apartment coamplexes until decline.
Significant trade and cultural influence extended, exporting obsidian (strongest 1-500 C.E.); human/animal sacrifice practiced.
Decline occurred after the 536 C.E. supervolcano eruption, potentially worsened by internal rebellion, leading to abandonment by the 9th century C.E.
Maya City-States (Central America)
Maya city-states sustained large populations through intensive agriculture (terracing, swamp draining, slash-and-burn), cultivating corn, beans, and squash ("Three Sisters") for centuries.
Divine-descent rulers governed with scribes and priests; society paid taxes in crops, labor, and military service for generations.
Polytheistic religion practiced, with priests holding high social standing during the classical period (
~250-900 C.E.).Advanced astronomy (eclipses, moon phases) and three calendars developed. Olmec math and writing with over 850 glyphs elaborated, flourishing 300-900 C.E.
Classical era characterized by lively arts (carved monuments, written books); stone tools used due to limited metalcraft.
Decline began after 900 C.E. due to population pressure, agricultural strain, and drought, shifting to smaller, rural settlements. Some northern cities thrived until Spanish arrival (early 16th century C.E.).
The Toltecs (Central America)
Toltecs became prominent in central Mexico during the 10th century (
~900-1200 C.E.) as Maya city-states declined, continuing Mesoamerican cultural traits.Capital city, Tollan/Tula, had a peak population of at least 30,000; shared urban layouts and the feathered serpent god (Quetzalcoatl) with later Maya/Aztecs.
Known for robust obsidian trade and highly skilled craftsmen (
~900-1200 C.E.); "tolteca" meant "artisan" for Aztecs.Fierce warriors extracted tribute and captives during expansion. Toltec influence declined in the 12th century; Tollan largely destroyed by
~1150 C.E.Greatly admired by Aztecs (emerging
~1300 C.E.), who adopted practices and claimed descent.
Moche (South America)
Moche continued Chavin culture and Norte Chico economic practices in northern Peru, 200 B.C.E. - 700 C.E., establishing complex societies.
Economy based on irrigated fields (corn, cotton) and ocean resources throughout 200 B.C.E. - 700 C.E.; confederation/empire status debated.
Monumental structures: Temple of the Sun (over 140 million adobe bricks) and Temple of the Moon, constructed 100-600 C.E., served as human sacrifice sites.
Society included priestesses/rulers; arts depicting people, gods, animals (murals, metalwork, pottery) characterized their 200 B.C.E. - 700 C.E. cultural period.
Decline occurred during a 6th century C.E. dry cycle (
~550-600 C.E.), causing sand to fill irrigation canals. Succeeded by Chimor civilization (rose
~900 C.E.).
Nazca (South America)
Nazca occupied southern Peru (100 B.C.E. - 800 C.E.), sustaining themselves with intensive underground irrigation systems developed/maintained over centuries.
A confederation of chiefdoms; notable for rudimentary brain surgery (trepanation), a medical practice from
~200 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.Most famous for "Nazca Lines," enormous geoglyphs created on desert floor by revealing lighter soil, visible only from sky; majority created 450-650 C.E.
Lines' purpose (e.g., astronomical calendars, ritual pathways, messages to gods, marking water faults) remains debated.