hbs final study guide

  • What is lymph?

    • Clear, watery liquid that is formed from interstitial fluid

  • What are lymph nodes, and what is their function?

    • Lymph nodes: lymph is carried to lymph nodes, which are surrounded by capsule of connective tissue

      • Filters lymph

  • What is the difference between innate immunity and acquired immunity?

    • Innate:

      • Works quick

      • Non-specific

      • Born with it

    • Acquired:

      • Works slowly

      • Specific

      • Acquired over a lifetime

      • Active immunity: acquired after infection and recovery

        • Humoral immunity

        • Cell-mediated immunity

      • Passive immunity: acquired by a child from it mother through placenta or breast feeding

  • What are the innate defense mechanisms?

    • Skin

    • Mucous membranes

      • Cilia sweeps pathogens toward the mouth for removal

    • Gastric juice from stomach, saliva, tears: contain enzymes that kill pathogens

    • Internal barriers:

      • Phagocytes: eat foreign invaders

        • Neutrophils: kill bacteria then die (creating pus)

        • Macrophages: cytoplasmic extensions to ingest pathogens

      • Natural killer cells

      • Inflammation 

  • How does acquired immunity work? Include all relevant cell types involved. Review immune cells (B cells, T cells, and helper T cells).

    • Lymphocytes produce antibodies that match certain antigens

    • Antigens trigger a specific immune response to pathogens 

    • Acquired immunity must be able to: 

      • Dsicriminate between self and non-self antigens

      • Recognize specific antigen among trillions

      • Generate large diversity of antibodies

      • Provide memory of antigens

    • Passive immunity: transfer of antibodies from another individual

    • Active immunity: 

      • Humoral response: involves b-cells, responds to antigens BEFORE they infect body cells 

        • Memory B: long-term pathogen memory

        • Plasma B: produces antibodies that neutralize pathogens

      • Cell-mediated response: involves t-cells, responds to body cells that have ALREADY been infected with foreign pathogens 

        • Helper T: activates B and cytotoxic T cells

        • Cytotoxic T: attacks pathogens 

Unit 4.1: Keeping It Renal (Urinary System)

  • What are the four main structures of the urinary system, and what do they do?

    • Kidney

      • Filter blood, produce urine, regulate fluid volume 

    • Ureters

      • Transport urine from kidney to bladder 

    • Bladder

      • Stores urine

    • Urethra

      • Carries urine from bladder out of body

  • Describe, identify and label the major structures of the kidney.

  • Describe, identify and label the major structures of the nephron.



  • What does glomerular filtration rate (GFR) represent, and why is it important?

    • Measures how well the kidneys are filtering blood 

    • Regular GFR is 125 mL per minute 

    • Irregular GFR means that kidneys are not functioning correctly

    • If less than 20, needs to begin dialysis

    • Less than 15, needs kidney transplant

  • What is the difference between filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, and where does each process happen in the nephron?

    • Filtration: occurs in the glomerulus/bowman’s capsule

      • Blood enters through afferent arteriole

      • Specialized filtration cells: podocytes

      • Filtrate continues into the renal tubule 

      • Remaining blood exits through the efferent arteriole 

    • Reabsorption: occurs primarily in the proximal tubule and loop of henle

      • Substances (ions, nutrients) go from nephron → back into the blood

    • Secretion: occurs primarily in the distal tubule and collecting duct 

      • Substances go from blood → nephron to be excreted 

  • What is Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD), and what are its symptoms?

    • Fluid-filled cysts grow in the kidneys → kidney failure 

    • Symptoms: 

      • High blood pressure

      • Kidney stones

      • Blood in urine

      • Abdominal pain

      • Frequent urination

  • How does PKD affect the structure and function of the kidneys?

    • Makes the kidneys abnormally large 

    • Harms healthy tissue surrounding the cysts

    • Increasingly deteriorates the function of the kidney since the cysts obstruct the renal tubules and arteries 

  • Understand how restriction enzymes work, how gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments, and how to interpret gel results.

    • Restriction enzymes: enzyme th

  • Know how to interpret macroscopic, chemical, and microscopic analysis of urine, including:

    • Color 

    • Clarity

    • pH

    • Specific Gravity

    • Protein

    • Glucose

    • Ketones

    • Erythrocytes

    • Leukocytes

4.2 It Takes Guts (Digestive System)

  • What is the correct path that food takes through the alimentary canal?

  • Alimentary canal: digestive/gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to anus

  • Path: mouth → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus

  • What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?

  • Mechanical: physical breakdown of food by teeth and muscle movements of digestive system

  • Chemical: chemical breakdown of food by digestive enzymes and acids

  • What are the main types of macromolecules, what roles do they play in the body, and what are their building blocks?

  • Carbohydrates

    • Building blocks: monosaccharides, disaccharides

    • Roles: provide and store energy, structural component of cells

  • Proteins

    • Building blocks: amino acids, polypeptides

    • Roles: driving cellular reactions, providing defense, building structures, transporting materials, coordinating cellular activities, movement

  • Lipids

    • Building blocks: glycerol, fatty acid chains

    • Roles: stores energy, constructs cellular membranes, signals cells

  • Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

    • Building blocks: nucleotides

    • Roles: stores and transmits genetic info

  • What are colonoscopies and upper endoscopies?

  • Colonoscopy: looks inside the large intestines

    • Inserts a colonoscope through the anus and into the rectum

  • Upper endoscopy: looks inside the upper digestive tract 

    • Inserts endoscope through the mouth down the throat into the esophagus, stomach, duodenum

  • How are the following digestive diseases defined, and what are their common causes?

    • colon polyp, celiac disease, GERD, peptic ulcer, Crohn’s disease, and Whipple’s disease?

  • Colon polyp: polyps form on the inner lining of the colon or rectum, may develop into cancer

    • Causes: increasing age, genetics, low-fiber diet, smoking, alcohol, obesity, diabetes

  • Celiac disease: small intestine is hypersensitive to gluten, leading to difficulty in digesting food

    • Causes: can be inherited, excess consumption of gluten in wheat, barley, rye

  • GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease): stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms like heartburn

    • Causes: malfunction of lower esophageal sphincter (LES) (a muscle that prevents stomach acid from flowing back up into the esophagus)

  • Peptic ulcer: open sore in the lining of the stomach or the first part of the small intestine

    • Causes: helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

  • Crohn’s disease: type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation of the digestive tract 

    • Causes: body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the digestive tract 

  • Whipple’s disease: bacterial infection that affects the small intestine and other organs, causing malabsorption (difficulty absorbing nutrients from food)

    • Causes: bacterium Tropheryma whipplei

  • What is dysbiosis? 

  • Dysbiosis: microbial imbalance in the gut

  • Understand the structure, function, and location of the following:

    • Tongue (Taste Buds): Taste bud, Folate papillae 

      • Taste perception

    • Stomach: Gastric pits, Fundic glands, Columnar epithelium

      • Gastric pits: indentations in the stomach wall that lead to fundic glands, facilitate secretion of digestive enzymes and gastric juices 

      • Fundic/gastric glands: under gastric pits, secrete gastric juices

      • Columnar epithelium: secretion, absorption, protection

    • Small Intestine: Enterocytes, Villi, Mucosa, Submucosa, Crypts 

      • Enterocytes: cells that line the inner surface of the small intestine, nutrient absorption

      • Villi: tiny finger like projections lining the inner surface of the small intestine, nutrient absorption

      • Mucosa: innermost lining of the small intestine, nutrient absorption

      • Submucosa: connective tissue layer under the mucosa, provides support

      • Crypts: located at the base of the villi, stem cell growth and epithelial renewal

      •  

    • Pancreas: Islet of Langerhans

      • Tiny, hormone-producing clusters of cells within the pancreas

      • Regulate blood glucose levels by secreting hormones like insulin and glucagon

    • Liver: Portal vein, Bile duct, Lobules 

      • Portal vein: blood vessel that delivers blood from digestive organs to the liver

      • Bile duct: thin tube-like structures within the liver that play a crucial role in digestion and excretion of bile 

      • Lobules: hexagonal units of hepatocytes with a central vein in the center

      •  

    • Colon (large intestine): Mucosa, Columnar epithelium, Connective tissue

      • Mucosa: inner lining of colon made of epithelial cells

      • Columnar epithelium: composed of absorptive cells, goblet cells

        • Water and electrolyte absorption

      • Connective tissue: support, protect, connect layers of the colon

  • Review the structure, function and location of each digestive system organ.

    • Mouth (Oral Cavity)

    • Pharynx

    • Esophagus

    • Stomach

    • Small Intestine

      • Duodenum

      • Jejunum

      • Ileum

    • Large Intestine

      • Cecum

      • Colon

        • Ascending colon

        • Transverse colon

        • Descending colon

        • Sigmoid colon

      • Rectum

      • Anus

  • Review the structure, function and location of each accessory digestive system organ.

    • Teeth

    • Tongue

    • Salivary Glands

    • Liver

    • Gallbladder

    • Pancreas