hbs final study guide

• What is lymph?

  • Clear, watery liquid that is formed from interstitial fluid

• What are lymph nodes, and what is their function?

  • Lymph nodes: lymph is carried to lymph nodes, which are surrounded by capsule of connective tissue

    • Filters lymph

• What is the difference between innate immunity and acquired immunity?

  • Innate:

    • Works quick

    • Non-specific

    • Born with it

  • Acquired:

    • Works slowly

    • Specific

    • Acquired over a lifetime

    • Active immunity: acquired after infection and recovery

      • Humoral immunity

      • Cell-mediated immunity

    • Passive immunity: acquired by a child from it mother through placenta or breast feeding

• What are the innate defense mechanisms?

  • Skin

  • Mucous membranes

    • Cilia sweeps pathogens toward the mouth for removal

  • Gastric juice from stomach, saliva, tears: contain enzymes that kill pathogens

  • Internal barriers:

    • Phagocytes: eat foreign invaders

      • Neutrophils: kill bacteria then die (creating pus)

      • Macrophages: cytoplasmic extensions to ingest pathogens

    • Natural killer cells

    • Inflammation 

• How does acquired immunity work? Include all relevant cell types involved. Review immune cells (B cells, T cells, and helper T cells).

  • Lymphocytes produce antibodies that match certain antigens

  • Antigens trigger a specific immune response to pathogens 

  • Acquired immunity must be able to: 

    • Dsicriminate between self and non-self antigens

    • Recognize specific antigen among trillions

    • Generate large diversity of antibodies

    • Provide memory of antigens

  • Passive immunity: transfer of antibodies from another individual

  • Active immunity: 

    • Humoral response: involves b-cells, responds to antigens BEFORE they infect body cells 

      • Memory B: long-term pathogen memory

      • Plasma B: produces antibodies that neutralize pathogens

    • Cell-mediated response: involves t-cells, responds to body cells that have ALREADY been infected with foreign pathogens 

      • Helper T: activates B and cytotoxic T cells

      • Cytotoxic T: attacks pathogens 

Unit 4.1: Keeping It Renal (Urinary System)

• What are the four main structures of the urinary system, and what do they do?

  • Kidney

    • Filter blood, produce urine, regulate fluid volume 

  • Ureters

    • Transport urine from kidney to bladder 

  • Bladder

    • Stores urine

  • Urethra

    • Carries urine from bladder out of body
      
      

• Describe, identify and label the major structures of the kidney.
  

• Describe, identify and label the major structures of the nephron.

• 
  
  

• What does glomerular filtration rate (GFR) represent, and why is it important?

  • Measures how well the kidneys are filtering blood 

  • Regular GFR is 125 mL per minute 

  • Irregular GFR means that kidneys are not functioning correctly

  • If less than 20, needs to begin dialysis

  • Less than 15, needs kidney transplant
    
    

• What is the difference between filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, and where does each process happen in the nephron?

  • Filtration: occurs in the glomerulus/bowman’s capsule

    • Blood enters through afferent arteriole

    • Specialized filtration cells: podocytes

    • Filtrate continues into the renal tubule 

    • Remaining blood exits through the efferent arteriole 

  • Reabsorption: occurs primarily in the proximal tubule and loop of henle

    • Substances (ions, nutrients) go from nephron → back into the blood

  • Secretion: occurs primarily in the distal tubule and collecting duct 

    • Substances go from blood → nephron to be excreted 

• What is Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD), and what are its symptoms?

  • Fluid-filled cysts grow in the kidneys → kidney failure 

  • Symptoms: 

    • High blood pressure

    • Kidney stones

    • Blood in urine

    • Abdominal pain

    • Frequent urination
      
      

• How does PKD affect the structure and function of the kidneys?

  • Makes the kidneys abnormally large 

  • Harms healthy tissue surrounding the cysts

  • Increasingly deteriorates the function of the kidney since the cysts obstruct the renal tubules and arteries 

• Understand how restriction enzymes work, how gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments, and how to interpret gel results.

  • Restriction enzymes: enzyme th
    
    

• Know how to interpret macroscopic, chemical, and microscopic analysis of urine, including:

  • Color 

  • Clarity

  • pH

  • Specific Gravity

  • Protein

  • Glucose

  • Ketones

  • Erythrocytes

  • Leukocytes

4.2 It Takes Guts (Digestive System)

• What is the correct path that food takes through the alimentary canal?

• Alimentary canal: digestive/gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to anus

• Path: mouth → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus

• What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?

• Mechanical: physical breakdown of food by teeth and muscle movements of digestive system

• Chemical: chemical breakdown of food by digestive enzymes and acids

• What are the main types of macromolecules, what roles do they play in the body, and what are their building blocks?

• Carbohydrates

  • Building blocks: monosaccharides, disaccharides

  • Roles: provide and store energy, structural component of cells

• Proteins

  • Building blocks: amino acids, polypeptides

  • Roles: driving cellular reactions, providing defense, building structures, transporting materials, coordinating cellular activities, movement

• Lipids

  • Building blocks: glycerol, fatty acid chains

  • Roles: stores energy, constructs cellular membranes, signals cells

• Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

  • Building blocks: nucleotides

  • Roles: stores and transmits genetic info

• What are colonoscopies and upper endoscopies?

• Colonoscopy: looks inside the large intestines

  • Inserts a colonoscope through the anus and into the rectum

• Upper endoscopy: looks inside the upper digestive tract 

  • Inserts endoscope through the mouth down the throat into the esophagus, stomach, duodenum

• How are the following digestive diseases defined, and what are their common causes?

  • colon polyp, celiac disease, GERD, peptic ulcer, Crohn’s disease, and Whipple’s disease?

• Colon polyp: polyps form on the inner lining of the colon or rectum, may develop into cancer

  • Causes: increasing age, genetics, low-fiber diet, smoking, alcohol, obesity, diabetes

• Celiac disease: small intestine is hypersensitive to gluten, leading to difficulty in digesting food

  • Causes: can be inherited, excess consumption of gluten in wheat, barley, rye

• GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease): stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms like heartburn

  • Causes: malfunction of lower esophageal sphincter (LES) (a muscle that prevents stomach acid from flowing back up into the esophagus)

• Peptic ulcer: open sore in the lining of the stomach or the first part of the small intestine

  • Causes: helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

• Crohn’s disease: type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation of the digestive tract 

  • Causes: body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the digestive tract 

• Whipple’s disease: bacterial infection that affects the small intestine and other organs, causing malabsorption (difficulty absorbing nutrients from food)

  • Causes: bacterium Tropheryma whipplei

• What is dysbiosis? 

• Dysbiosis: microbial imbalance in the gut

• Understand the structure, function, and location of the following:

  • Tongue (Taste Buds): Taste bud, Folate papillae 

    • Taste perception

  • Stomach: Gastric pits, Fundic glands, Columnar epithelium

    • Gastric pits: indentations in the stomach wall that lead to fundic glands, facilitate secretion of digestive enzymes and gastric juices 

    • Fundic/gastric glands: under gastric pits, secrete gastric juices

    • Columnar epithelium: secretion, absorption, protection

  • Small Intestine: Enterocytes, Villi, Mucosa, Submucosa, Crypts 

    • Enterocytes: cells that line the inner surface of the small intestine, nutrient absorption

    • Villi: tiny finger like projections lining the inner surface of the small intestine, nutrient absorption

    • Mucosa: innermost lining of the small intestine, nutrient absorption

    • Submucosa: connective tissue layer under the mucosa, provides support

    • Crypts: located at the base of the villi, stem cell growth and epithelial renewal

    •  

  • Pancreas: Islet of Langerhans

    • Tiny, hormone-producing clusters of cells within the pancreas

    • Regulate blood glucose levels by secreting hormones like insulin and glucagon

  • Liver: Portal vein, Bile duct, Lobules 

    • Portal vein: blood vessel that delivers blood from digestive organs to the liver

    • Bile duct: thin tube-like structures within the liver that play a crucial role in digestion and excretion of bile 

    • Lobules: hexagonal units of hepatocytes with a central vein in the center

    •  

  • Colon (large intestine): Mucosa, Columnar epithelium, Connective tissue

    • Mucosa: inner lining of colon made of epithelial cells

    • Columnar epithelium: composed of absorptive cells, goblet cells

      • Water and electrolyte absorption

    • Connective tissue: support, protect, connect layers of the colon

• Review the structure, function and location of each digestive system organ.

  • Mouth (Oral Cavity)

  • Pharynx

  • Esophagus

  • Stomach

  • Small Intestine

    • Duodenum

    • Jejunum

    • Ileum

  • Large Intestine

    • Cecum

    • Colon

      • Ascending colon

      • Transverse colon

      • Descending colon

      • Sigmoid colon

    • Rectum

    • Anus

• Review the structure, function and location of each accessory digestive system organ.

  • Teeth

  • Tongue

  • Salivary Glands

  • Liver

  • Gallbladder

  • Pancreas