What is lymph?
Clear, watery liquid that is formed from interstitial fluid
What are lymph nodes, and what is their function?
Lymph nodes: lymph is carried to lymph nodes, which are surrounded by capsule of connective tissue
Filters lymph
What is the difference between innate immunity and acquired immunity?
Innate:
Works quick
Non-specific
Born with it
Acquired:
Works slowly
Specific
Acquired over a lifetime
Active immunity: acquired after infection and recovery
Humoral immunity
Cell-mediated immunity
Passive immunity: acquired by a child from it mother through placenta or breast feeding
What are the innate defense mechanisms?
Skin
Mucous membranes
Cilia sweeps pathogens toward the mouth for removal
Gastric juice from stomach, saliva, tears: contain enzymes that kill pathogens
Internal barriers:
Phagocytes: eat foreign invaders
Neutrophils: kill bacteria then die (creating pus)
Macrophages: cytoplasmic extensions to ingest pathogens
Natural killer cells
Inflammation
How does acquired immunity work? Include all relevant cell types involved. Review immune cells (B cells, T cells, and helper T cells).
Lymphocytes produce antibodies that match certain antigens
Antigens trigger a specific immune response to pathogens
Acquired immunity must be able to:
Dsicriminate between self and non-self antigens
Recognize specific antigen among trillions
Generate large diversity of antibodies
Provide memory of antigens
Passive immunity: transfer of antibodies from another individual
Active immunity:
Humoral response: involves b-cells, responds to antigens BEFORE they infect body cells
Memory B: long-term pathogen memory
Plasma B: produces antibodies that neutralize pathogens
Cell-mediated response: involves t-cells, responds to body cells that have ALREADY been infected with foreign pathogens
Helper T: activates B and cytotoxic T cells
Cytotoxic T: attacks pathogens
Unit 4.1: Keeping It Renal (Urinary System)
What are the four main structures of the urinary system, and what do they do?
Kidney
Filter blood, produce urine, regulate fluid volume
Ureters
Transport urine from kidney to bladder
Bladder
Stores urine
Urethra
Carries urine from bladder out of body
Describe, identify and label the major structures of the kidney.
Describe, identify and label the major structures of the nephron.
What does glomerular filtration rate (GFR) represent, and why is it important?
Measures how well the kidneys are filtering blood
Regular GFR is 125 mL per minute
Irregular GFR means that kidneys are not functioning correctly
If less than 20, needs to begin dialysis
Less than 15, needs kidney transplant
What is the difference between filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, and where does each process happen in the nephron?
Filtration: occurs in the glomerulus/bowman’s capsule
Blood enters through afferent arteriole
Specialized filtration cells: podocytes
Filtrate continues into the renal tubule
Remaining blood exits through the efferent arteriole
Reabsorption: occurs primarily in the proximal tubule and loop of henle
Substances (ions, nutrients) go from nephron → back into the blood
Secretion: occurs primarily in the distal tubule and collecting duct
Substances go from blood → nephron to be excreted
What is Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD), and what are its symptoms?
Fluid-filled cysts grow in the kidneys → kidney failure
Symptoms:
High blood pressure
Kidney stones
Blood in urine
Abdominal pain
Frequent urination
How does PKD affect the structure and function of the kidneys?
Makes the kidneys abnormally large
Harms healthy tissue surrounding the cysts
Increasingly deteriorates the function of the kidney since the cysts obstruct the renal tubules and arteries
Understand how restriction enzymes work, how gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments, and how to interpret gel results.
Restriction enzymes: enzyme th
Know how to interpret macroscopic, chemical, and microscopic analysis of urine, including:
Color
Clarity
pH
Specific Gravity
Protein
Glucose
Ketones
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
4.2 It Takes Guts (Digestive System)
What is the correct path that food takes through the alimentary canal?
Alimentary canal: digestive/gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to anus
Path: mouth → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus
What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?
Mechanical: physical breakdown of food by teeth and muscle movements of digestive system
Chemical: chemical breakdown of food by digestive enzymes and acids
What are the main types of macromolecules, what roles do they play in the body, and what are their building blocks?
Carbohydrates
Building blocks: monosaccharides, disaccharides
Roles: provide and store energy, structural component of cells
Proteins
Building blocks: amino acids, polypeptides
Roles: driving cellular reactions, providing defense, building structures, transporting materials, coordinating cellular activities, movement
Lipids
Building blocks: glycerol, fatty acid chains
Roles: stores energy, constructs cellular membranes, signals cells
Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
Building blocks: nucleotides
Roles: stores and transmits genetic info
What are colonoscopies and upper endoscopies?
Colonoscopy: looks inside the large intestines
Inserts a colonoscope through the anus and into the rectum
Upper endoscopy: looks inside the upper digestive tract
Inserts endoscope through the mouth down the throat into the esophagus, stomach, duodenum
How are the following digestive diseases defined, and what are their common causes?
colon polyp, celiac disease, GERD, peptic ulcer, Crohn’s disease, and Whipple’s disease?
Colon polyp: polyps form on the inner lining of the colon or rectum, may develop into cancer
Causes: increasing age, genetics, low-fiber diet, smoking, alcohol, obesity, diabetes
Celiac disease: small intestine is hypersensitive to gluten, leading to difficulty in digesting food
Causes: can be inherited, excess consumption of gluten in wheat, barley, rye
GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease): stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms like heartburn
Causes: malfunction of lower esophageal sphincter (LES) (a muscle that prevents stomach acid from flowing back up into the esophagus)
Peptic ulcer: open sore in the lining of the stomach or the first part of the small intestine
Causes: helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
Crohn’s disease: type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation of the digestive tract
Causes: body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the digestive tract
Whipple’s disease: bacterial infection that affects the small intestine and other organs, causing malabsorption (difficulty absorbing nutrients from food)
Causes: bacterium Tropheryma whipplei
What is dysbiosis?
Dysbiosis: microbial imbalance in the gut
Understand the structure, function, and location of the following:
Tongue (Taste Buds): Taste bud, Folate papillae
Taste perception
Stomach: Gastric pits, Fundic glands, Columnar epithelium
Gastric pits: indentations in the stomach wall that lead to fundic glands, facilitate secretion of digestive enzymes and gastric juices
Fundic/gastric glands: under gastric pits, secrete gastric juices
Columnar epithelium: secretion, absorption, protection
Small Intestine: Enterocytes, Villi, Mucosa, Submucosa, Crypts
Enterocytes: cells that line the inner surface of the small intestine, nutrient absorption
Villi: tiny finger like projections lining the inner surface of the small intestine, nutrient absorption
Mucosa: innermost lining of the small intestine, nutrient absorption
Submucosa: connective tissue layer under the mucosa, provides support
Crypts: located at the base of the villi, stem cell growth and epithelial renewal
Pancreas: Islet of Langerhans
Tiny, hormone-producing clusters of cells within the pancreas
Regulate blood glucose levels by secreting hormones like insulin and glucagon
Liver: Portal vein, Bile duct, Lobules
Portal vein: blood vessel that delivers blood from digestive organs to the liver
Bile duct: thin tube-like structures within the liver that play a crucial role in digestion and excretion of bile
Lobules: hexagonal units of hepatocytes with a central vein in the center
Colon (large intestine): Mucosa, Columnar epithelium, Connective tissue
Mucosa: inner lining of colon made of epithelial cells
Columnar epithelium: composed of absorptive cells, goblet cells
Water and electrolyte absorption
Connective tissue: support, protect, connect layers of the colon
Review the structure, function and location of each digestive system organ.
Mouth (Oral Cavity)
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Large Intestine
Cecum
Colon
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Anus
Review the structure, function and location of each accessory digestive system organ.
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary Glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas