Unit 2 Apes Review

Ecosystem Diversity – the number
of diff habitats available in a given
area
Species Diversity - the number of
diff species in an ecosystem and
the balance or evenness of the
pop sizes of all species in the
ecosystem
Genetic Diversity – how different the genes are
of individuals within a population (group of same
species)
Richness & Species richness (r) the total number of different species found in
an ecosystem ; higher the r number the more healthy the
ecosystem bc means more quality resources like H2O and soil
Species evenness – a measure of how all the individual organisms
in an ecosystem are balanced between the different species
Gene Div Benefits Genetic Diversity a measure of how different the genomes (set of genes) are of
the individuals within a population of a given species
Genetic diversity exists because in all pops there are random mutations in
copying DNA and recombination of chromosomes in sex cells of parents, and
this leads to new gene combinations and new trains in offspring
The more genetic diversity a population has, the better the pop. bc some
individuals with the variations can have traits that can respond to environmental stressors like drought, disease, or famine
Bottleneck Bottleneck Event- Any environmental disturbance (natural or anthropogenic) that
can drastically reduce a pop size and kills organisms regardless of their genome
Original pop. large and diverse Smaller and diff genetic diversity
*Bottleneck event/effects REDUCE genetic diversity*
Inbreeding Inbreeding depression occurs when organisms mate closely with related “family”
members. Leads to higher chance of harmful genetic mutations bc get similar harmful
genotypes from both parents. Smaller pops more likely to experience inbreeding (harder
to find mate). Ex of harmful genetic mutations depending on diff species can span from
heart defects, low sperm county, etc.
Resilience Resilience – the ability of an ecosystem to return to its original conditions
after a major disturbance (wind storm, fire, flood, clear-cutting ,etc)
Higher species diversity = higher ecosystem resilience
More plant species to repop ground, anchor soil, provide food/habitat for
more species

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2.2 Eco$y$tem $ervices (10.44)
Text pages: 9.1 p191-194
Learning Objectives: Describe ecosystem services.
Describe the results of human disruptions to ecosystem services.
Essential Knowledge
1. There are four categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting.
2. Anthropogenic activities can disrupt ecosystem services, potentially resulting in economic and ecological consequences.
Define Eco$y$tem $ervices – Goods that come from natural resources OR services/functions that ecosystems carry out that
have measurable economic/financial value to humans
Human activities disrupt the ability of ecosystems to function which decreases the value of ecosystem services they provide
Provisioning – Goods taken directly from
ecosystems or made from natural resources
for sale/use by humans (wood, paper, fish,
hunting animals, water, food, rubber, medicines)
Regulating – Natural ecosystems regulate climate/air
quality and climate or help reduce storm damage and healthcare
costs.
Disruptive examples – Disrupted by overharvesting,
water pollution, clearing land for
agricultural/urbanization.
Example: Overfishing leads to fish population collapse
(lost fishing jobs and lower fish sales in the future)
Disruptive examples - Clearing land for agriculture/cities removes trees that
store CO2 (more CO2 in atm = more climate change = more storm
damage due to rising sea levels and crop failure from drought
-Trees filter air by absorbing air pollutants which reduces health care
costs from treating diseases like asthma and bronchitis
Supporting – Natural ecosystems support
processes we do ourselves, making them
cheaper and easier.
Examples: Bees pollinate crops and wetlands have
plants whose roots filter population for cleaner
groundwater
Cultural – Money generated by recreation (parks, camping,
tours) or scientific knowledge.
Examples: Beautiful landscapes draw tourists who pay to
enter parks, spend money at local stores/restaurants, or camping
fees.
-Fishermen paying for fishing licenses to catch fish in clean rivers.
Disruptive examples – Clearing away wetlands gets rid
of plants roots that filter pollutants to cleaner
groundwater that we don’t have to pay as much to
purify with expensive water treatment plants.
-Bees and other insects pollinate our agriculture crops,
leading to more crop production and higher profits.
Disruptive examples- Deforestation, pollution, and urbanization ...
Clearing land for agriculture/cities removes trees that store CO2
(more CO2 in atm = more climate change = more storm damage due
to rising sea levels and crop failure from drought
-Trees filter air by absorbing air pollutants which reduces health care
costs from treating diseases like asthma and bronchitis.

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2.3 Theory of Island Biogeography (11.27)
Miller & Spoolman text pages: 9.3 p197
Learning Objectives: Describe island biogeography. Describe the role of island biogeography in evolution.
Essential Knowledge
1. Island biogeography is the study of the ecological relationships and distribution of organisms on islands, and of these organisms’
community structures.
2. Islands have been colonized in the past by new species arriving from elsewhere.
3. Many island species have evolved to be specialists versus generalists because of the limited resources, such as food and territory, on most
islands. The long-term survival of specialists may be jeopardized if and when invasive species, typically generalists, are introduced and
outcompete the specialists.
Island Biogeography What is Island Biogeography? Study of ecological relationships and community
structure on islands.
-Islands can be islands in a body of water on figurative habitat islands such as central
park in NYC or National parks (nat habitat surrounded b human developed land).
2 BASIC RULES.... (1. And 2. listed below)
2 Basic Ideas 1. Larger Islands Support More Species 2. Closer to the “Mainland” Support More Species
- Larger island = Larger pop sizes = Greater the
ecosystem diversity (more resistant to
enviornmental disturbances and lower extinction
rate)
- Greater ecosystem diversity = more food and hab
resources
- More habitat resources = more niches or “roles”
organisms can play in the ecosystem (Ex: all diff food
sources avaiable to birds on Galapogos)
Overall: Positive correlation between island size
and species richness
-Easier for colonizing organisms to get to island from mainland
(swim/fly)
-More colonizing organisms = more genetic diversity in new
population
-more continual migration of individuals to the island habitat =
more genetic diversity and larger pop sizes
Overall: Inverse relationship between distance to mainland and
species richness
-Islands have limited space and resources = unique evol
-More pressure for species to adapt bc narrower niches
-Adaptive Radiation = single species rapidly evolving into several new
species use diff resources and reduce competition
Example  Galapogos finches (Diff beaks evolve to fit variet of diff
food sources on island); single colonizing species from mainland
quickly evolving to slightly diff species to adapt to new island
conditions

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Learning Objective: Describe how organisms adapt to their environment.
Essential Knowledge
1. Organisms adapt to their environment over time, both in short- and long-term scales, via incremental changes at the genetic level.
2. Environmental changes, either sudden or gradual, may threaten a species’ survival, requiring individuals to alter behaviors, move, or
perish.
Adaptation Genetic diversity exists in all populations because random
mutations while DNA is being copied create AND due to the
crossing over (exchanging genetic information) during Prophase I in Meiosis – both leading to new traits.
Genetic variability gives rise to adaptations, new trait increases an organism’s fitness (ability to survive and reproduce).
NatSelection Natural Selection – organisms that are better adapted to their
environment survive and reproduce more offspring.
-Individuals with adaptations pass them on to offspring and individuals without adaptations die off, which leaves to
entire populations evolving NOT an organism evolving.
Selective Force/Selective Pressure – the environmental condition that kills individuals without the adaptation.
*In the image above, you can see microevolution occur with the selective force being predation.
Env Change & Ev The environment an organism lives in determines
which traits are adaptations. As environment
changes, different traits may become adaptations
and old traits become disadvantages.
In diagram to the left, drought can kill off finches
with smaller beaks, making larger beaks cracking harder seeds an adaptation.
Pace of Evolution Time
 If env change is rapid – the less likely a species in the environment will be able to adapt to those changes (either
migration occurs, or species may die off completely). Ex: Ocean warms too quickly, and warmer temp holds less O2
so the organisms will suffocate and die if organisms are not able to migrate quick enough.
 If env change is gradual then species are more likely to respond and adapt to the new conditions
Genetic Diversity
 If genetic diversity is high in a population, they’re able to adapt to env. Changes (higher chance that some individuals
have good mutations).
 If genetic diversity is low then they’re not able to adapt to environmental changes as well
Lifespan
 If the lifespan is long, the slower the rate of evolution
 If the lifespan is short/fast, the faster rate of evolution. Ex: Bacteria/viruses can evolve in days

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2.7 Ecological Succession (12.01)
Miller & Spoolman text pages: 4.6 p93-95, 5.2 p109-111
Learning Objectives: Describe ecological succession. Describe the effect of ecological succession on ecosystems.
Essential Knowledge
1. There are two main types of ecological succession: primary and secondary succession.
2. A keystone species in an ecosystem is a species whose activities have a particularly significant role in determining community structure.
3. An indicator species is a plant or animal that, by its presence, abundance, scarcity, or chemical composition, demonstrates that some distinctive aspect of the character
or quality of an ecosystem is present.
4. Pioneer members of an early successional species commonly move into unoccupied habitat and over time adapt to its particular conditions, which may result in the origin
of new species.
5. Succession in disturbed ecosystems will affect the total biomass, species, richness, &net productivity over time.
Ecological Succession – a series of predictable stages of growth that a forest goes through
Primary Succession
-Starts from bare rock in an area with NO previous soil
formation from a disturbance (volcanic eruption or
glacial retreat). Moss and lichen are pioneer species
carries by wind, grow on rocks and break it down to
form soil.
Secondary Succession
-Starts from already established soil in an area where a disturbance
(fire/tornado/human land clearing) cleared out the majority of
plant life. Then, grasses, wildflowers, and berry bushes will have
seeds dispersed by wind or animal droppings.
Stages of Succession -Difference between the two successions is soil present or not! Stages are characterized by which types of plant species
dominate the ecosystem; different species are adapted to the conditions of the different stages.
Pioneer or early succession species: appear first, when the ground is simply bare rock, or bare soul after disturbance.
Characteristics: seeds spread by wind/animals, fast growing, tolerant of shallow soil and full sunlight
Example: moss, lichen (bare rock) OR wildflowers raspberries, grasses/sedges
MID-successional species appear after pioneer species have
helped develop deeper soil with more nutrients by their cycles
of growth/death.
Characteristics: relatively fast growing, larger plants that need
deeper soils with more nutrients than pioneers, sun tolerant.
Example: shrubs, bushes, fast-growing trees like aspen,
cherry, and pine.
LATE successional or climax community species appear last
after soil deepens and enriches with nutrients by cycles of growth and death by early and mid-successional species.
Characteristics: large, slow growing trees that are tolerant of shade and require deep soil for large root network.
Example: maples, oaks, and other large trees