AP® Human Geography Study Guide

UNIT ONE: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY

• Definition of Human Geography: The study of spatial patterns and relationships, analyzing both historical and modern contexts.
• Importance of Maps: Maps are crucial tools in geography, serving to showcase spatial patterns. Cartography refers to mapmaking, with two main types of maps:
  • Reference Maps: Indicate the location of physical and human features.
  • Thematic Maps: Illustrate the spatial arrangement of specific data or features.
• Spatial Patterns on Maps: Include elements like:
  • Absolute and relative location
  • Distance, direction, elevation
  • Dispersal and clustering
• Types of Maps: Common maps include physical, political, choropleth, symbol, dot, topographic, and isoline maps. Each map has unique features and limitations due to 2D projection from a 3D Earth.
• Map Distortion Types: (SADD) - Shape, Area, Distance, Direction distortions are common challenges in map projections.
• Common Projections: Mercator, Robinson, Winkel Tripel.

GEOSPATIAL DATA AND TECHNOLOGIES

• Geospatial Data: Information related to geographic locations, classified as:
  • Quantitative Data: Numerical data (e.g., census information, income).
  • Qualitative Data: Non-numerical data (e.g., interviews, narratives).
• Geospatial Technologies: Tools to collect and analyze data include:
  • GPS (Global Positioning System)
  • GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
  • Remote sensing
  • Online mapping tools.

THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY

• Human geography involves all social science domains, focusing on:
  • Population and migration
  • Culture
  • Politics
  • Economic development
  • Urban vs. rural land use.
• Geospatial Data Applications: Used for personal (e.g., GPS for directions), business (optimal location analysis), and governmental decision-making.

HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

• Cultural Ecology: Explores the relationship between human societies and their environments. Two primary theories include:
  • Environmental Determinism: Suggests environment directly influences human behavior.
  • Possibilism: Proposes that human choices in response to environmental conditions shape behaviors.
• Sustainability Issues: Address concerns about natural resource management and environmental preservation.

SENSE OF PLACE AND REGIONALIZATION

• Each place on Earth has unique human and physical characteristics that evoke emotions and create a sense of belonging.
• Toponyms: Place names that carry cultural significance.
• Types of Regions:
  • Formal: Defined by common features (e.g., Gulf Coast).
  • Functional: Defined by a central node (e.g., neighborhoods).
  • Perceptual/Vernacular: Defined by subjective perceptions (e.g., “the South”).
• Regional boundaries can be ambiguous and disputed over time.

FROM LOCAL TO GLOBAL

• Globalization: Technology and communications enhance interconnectedness, yet some activities remain local.
• Four Scales of Analysis:
  • Local: Neighborhoods, cities.
  • National: Countries.
  • Regional: Groupings of states or areas (e.g., Midwest).
  • Global: Worldwide phenomena affecting all.

UNIT TWO: POPULATION AND MIGRATION PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

• Population Distribution:
  • Ecumene refers to inhabited regions of Earth.
  • Major population clusters: South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, Europe, West Africa, Eastern North America.
• Population Density Types:
  • Arithmetic Density: Total population per area.
  • Physiological Density: Population per unit of arable land.
  • Agricultural Density: Farmers per unit of arable land.
• Demography: Study of populations, tracking changes (births, deaths, migration).
  • Natural Increase Rate (NIR): Calculating growth by subtracting deaths from births.
• Demographic Measurements: CBR, CDR, IMR, Sex Ratio, defining population trends.

MIGRATION

• Push and Pull Factors: Causes of migration, which can be economic, social, political, or environmental.
• Types of Migration:
  • Voluntary: Includes transhumance, chain, circular, and guest worker migration.
  • Forced: Due to conflict, refugees, or disasters.
• Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: Most migrants are young adults who typically move short distances.

UNIT THREE: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

• Culture: Combined beliefs, artifacts, and institutions. Divided into:
  • Material Culture: Tangible artifacts.
  • Non-material Culture: Abstract beliefs.
• Cultural Landscape: The imprint of human activity on the environment.
• Cultural Diffusion: Spread of ideas and behaviors, categorized as:
  • Contagious: Rapid spread.
  • Hierarchical: Spread through influential people or nodes.
• Cultural Convergence/Divergence: Increasing similarity vs. decreasing similarity between cultures.

LANGUAGE AND RELIGION

• Language: Used to communicate; dialects vary by region.
  • Isogloss: Boundary of linguistic features.
  • Global Languages: Over 6,000 languages spoken; English as the lingua franca.
• Religion: Categorized into:
  • Ethnic: Tied to specific cultural groups (e.g., Hinduism).
  • Universalizing: Intended for all (e.g., Christianity).

UNIT FOUR: POLITICAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

• Political Geography: Study of human organization of space, including states, nations, and boundaries.
• Boundaries:
  • Delimitation, Demarcation, and types like Relic, Subsequent, Antecedent, Physical, and Geometric boundaries.
• Political Units: States represent independent countries; nations represent cultural groups seeking self-determination.
• Territoriality: Connection between activities, institutions, and land.

UNIT FIVE: AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LAND USE

• Types of Agriculture:
  • Commercial vs. Subsistence Agriculture.
  • Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture.
  • Specialty practices include market gardening and nomadic herding.
• Agricultural Revolutions: Significant developments that transformed farming methods.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Addressing challenges like pollution and climate change.

UNIT SIX: CITIES AND URBAN LAND USE

• Urbanization: Development of cities marked by historical shifts, often starting from agricultural surplus.
• Urban Models: Various theories explain city structures, such as the concentric zone model and sector model.
• Globalization and Urban Challenges: Megacities and metacities highlight growing urban populations, while social and environmental issues arise such as housing discrimination and pollution.