AP® Human Geography Study Guide

Definition of Human Geography: The study of spatial patterns and relationships, analyzing both historical and modern contexts.
Importance of Maps: Maps are crucial tools in geography, serving to showcase spatial patterns. Cartography refers to mapmaking, with two main types of maps:
- Reference Maps: Indicate the location of physical and human features.
- Thematic Maps: Illustrate the spatial arrangement of specific data or features.
Spatial Patterns on Maps: Include elements like:
- Absolute and relative location
- Distance, direction, elevation
- Dispersal and clustering
Types of Maps: Common maps include physical, political, choropleth, symbol, dot, topographic, and isoline maps. Each map has unique features and limitations due to 2D projection from a 3D Earth.
Map Distortion Types: (SADD) - Shape, Area, Distance, Direction distortions are common challenges in map projections.
Common Projections: Mercator, Robinson, Winkel Tripel.

Geospatial Data: Information related to geographic locations, classified as:
- Quantitative Data: Numerical data (e.g., census information, income).
- Qualitative Data: Non-numerical data (e.g., interviews, narratives).
Geospatial Technologies: Tools to collect and analyze data include:
- GPS (Global Positioning System)
- GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
- Remote sensing
- Online mapping tools.

Human geography involves all social science domains, focusing on:
- Population and migration
- Culture
- Politics
- Economic development
- Urban vs. rural land use.
Geospatial Data Applications: Used for personal (e.g., GPS for directions), business (optimal location analysis), and governmental decision-making.

Cultural Ecology: Explores the relationship between human societies and their environments. Two primary theories include:
- Environmental Determinism: Suggests environment directly influences human behavior.
- Possibilism: Proposes that human choices in response to environmental conditions shape behaviors.
Sustainability Issues: Address concerns about natural resource management and environmental preservation.

Each place on Earth has unique human and physical characteristics that evoke emotions and create a sense of belonging.
Toponyms: Place names that carry cultural significance.
Types of Regions:
- Formal: Defined by common features (e.g., Gulf Coast).
- Functional: Defined by a central node (e.g., neighborhoods).
- Perceptual/Vernacular: Defined by subjective perceptions (e.g., “the South”).
Regional boundaries can be ambiguous and disputed over time.

Globalization: Technology and communications enhance interconnectedness, yet some activities remain local.
Four Scales of Analysis:
- Local: Neighborhoods, cities.
- National: Countries.
- Regional: Groupings of states or areas (e.g., Midwest).
- Global: Worldwide phenomena affecting all.

Population Distribution:
- Ecumene refers to inhabited regions of Earth.
- Major population clusters: South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, Europe, West Africa, Eastern North America.
Population Density Types:
- Arithmetic Density: Total population per area.
- Physiological Density: Population per unit of arable land.
- Agricultural Density: Farmers per unit of arable land.
Demography: Study of populations, tracking changes (births, deaths, migration).
- Natural Increase Rate (NIR): Calculating growth by subtracting deaths from births.
Demographic Measurements: CBR, CDR, IMR, Sex Ratio, defining population trends.

Push and Pull Factors: Causes of migration, which can be economic, social, political, or environmental.
Types of Migration:
- Voluntary: Includes transhumance, chain, circular, and guest worker migration.
- Forced: Due to conflict, refugees, or disasters.
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: Most migrants are young adults who typically move short distances.

Culture: Combined beliefs, artifacts, and institutions. Divided into:
- Material Culture: Tangible artifacts.
- Non-material Culture: Abstract beliefs.
Cultural Landscape: The imprint of human activity on the environment.
Cultural Diffusion: Spread of ideas and behaviors, categorized as:
- Contagious: Rapid spread.
- Hierarchical: Spread through influential people or nodes.
Cultural Convergence/Divergence: Increasing similarity vs. decreasing similarity between cultures.

Language: Used to communicate; dialects vary by region.
- Isogloss: Boundary of linguistic features.
- Global Languages: Over 6,000 languages spoken; English as the lingua franca.
Religion: Categorized into:
- Ethnic: Tied to specific cultural groups (e.g., Hinduism).
- Universalizing: Intended for all (e.g., Christianity).

Political Geography: Study of human organization of space, including states, nations, and boundaries.
Boundaries:
- Delimitation, Demarcation, and types like Relic, Subsequent, Antecedent, Physical, and Geometric boundaries.
Political Units: States represent independent countries; nations represent cultural groups seeking self-determination.
Territoriality: Connection between activities, institutions, and land.

Types of Agriculture:
- Commercial vs. Subsistence Agriculture.
- Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture.
- Specialty practices include market gardening and nomadic herding.
Agricultural Revolutions: Significant developments that transformed farming methods.
Sustainable Agriculture: Addressing challenges like pollution and climate change.

Urbanization: Development of cities marked by historical shifts, often starting from agricultural surplus.
Urban Models: Various theories explain city structures, such as the concentric zone model and sector model.
Globalization and Urban Challenges: Megacities and metacities highlight growing urban populations, while social and environmental issues arise such as housing discrimination and pollution.