Week 2

Lecture notes – Natural Capital

• Community is rooted in our desire to belong but “community has changed due to changing social, political and economic changes

  • Globalization has made belonging complex/difficult

  • Not all changes to community are negative and new kinds of community have been/are being formed

• Community, and its meaning, is a contested term i the social science, but a balanced perspective

  • Social organization based on small groups

  • Culturally defined groups

  • Political community

  • Community is an ideology or utopia

  • Understood less as a social practice than a symbolic structure

    • “Community is ultimately what people think it is; it is a form of consciousness and expresses itself in boundaries, which are symbolically constituted” and  what distinguishes one community from another are the symbolic ways in which they construct those boundaries

    • Benedict anderson – imagined communities (1983)

• Is community local/particular or is it universal/global

  • This conflict as never been resolved and has endured to the present day when we find two kinds of community in conflict: the cosmopolitan quest for belonging on a global level and the indigenous search for roots” delany

• Community has been theorized as a normative ideal (what should. Could be) either locally or universally

• A place, location is which a group of people interact with one another

• Organization or set of organizations through which a group of people meet their needs

• 3 elements: location, social system, common identity

  • In the past, communities offered there three, nut significant changes have happened 

    • Eg. tech and transportation and globalization

  • Community is also those who do similar things or share a common values and interests

  • Therefore there are communities of place and communities of interest

• Difficult to provide a universal definition

• No longer homogeneous - fluid

• Both rooted in a local place and/oor shared values/interests

• Gemeinschaft – society based on personal relationships and face-to-face interaction in which social relations are valued as an end or goal

• Gesellshaft – a society based on impersonal, formal, and contractual relationships for which social relations are simply a means to an end

• Every community has resources or assets

  • When those assets and resources are invested to create new resources they become capital

• Financial capital, political capital, social capital, human capital, cultural capital, natural capital, built capital

  • Economic security social inclusion healthy ecosystem

• Three main factors that shape change– markets, state, and civil society

• Change does not happen in a vacuum – social, political, economic and historical contexts shape change

• Land (and access to land) is important to and for rural communities

  • 40 Acres and a Lie

• Natural capital definitions:

  • “The stock of natural resources and ecosystem services that underpin human wellbeing and economic development”

    • World bank

  • “Refers to the planets stocks of water, land, air, and renewable and non-renewable resources (such as plant and animal species, forests, and mineral)”

    • David suzuki foundation

  • Natural capital is finite

  • Natural capital is the base on which all other capitals are built

• The indigenous approach – one of using natural capital to create a subsistence economy, focusing on converting natural capital to social and cultural capital

• The colonial approach – transformed natural capital into financial capital – extracting wealth from nature

  • Epitomized in colonial expansion to new lands in search of financial wealth/capital

  • Utilitarian approach

  • Eg. alberta oil sands

• Land use (and changes in land use) are integral to natural capital

• The other capitals affect land use and natural capital 

  • Market forces in the form of resource extraction – mining and critical minerals 

  • Political capital in the form of public policies, urban expansion, etc.

Lecture summarizer:

Understanding Community

• Definition of Community: Rooted in the desire to belong, communities have undergone transformation due to changing social, political, and economic realities.

  • Impact of Globalization: While globalization has made communities more interconnected, the stereotype of isolated communities isn't entirely accurate anymore.

Transformations in Community

• Complexity and Diversity: The changes communities face include both challenges and positive transformations, such as the ability to connect with others who share niche interests online.

• Historical Perspectives: Community in social sciences is contested, often viewed through two historical lenses:

  • Imagined Communities: Communities formed through shared identities and interests.

  • Symbolic Structures: Communities rely on boundaries, both social and cultural, which can define who belongs and who does not.

Types of Communities

• Urban vs. Rural:

  • Urban neighborhoods can foster strong local communities (e.g., example of Shepherd West in Toronto).

• Culturally Defined Groups: Minorities often gather to form communities based on shared culture or religion.

• Political Communities: Political ideologies can shape community dynamics and identities (liberal, conservative, etc.).

Community and Identity

• National Identity: Questions arise about what it means to be Canadian, encompassing multicultural aspects and the shared Canadian identity.

• Romanticized Views: Communities are often idealized (utopias), overlooking conflicts and complexities (e.g., nature and human interaction).

Elements of Community

• Main Elements: According to readings, there are three essential elements of a community:

  1. Location: Geographically defined place where people interact.

  2. Social System: The institutions and organizations that cater to people's needs.

  3. Shared Identity: A collective identity formed through interactions, relationships, and cultural practices.

Community Capital Framework

• Introduction to Capitals: To unpack communities, a capital framework is utilized, incorporating various forms of capital:

  • Financial Capital: Resources related to finance and economic development.

  • Political Capital: Resources derived from political connections and influence.

  • Social Capital: Trust, networks, and relationships that enable coordination in a community.

  • Human Capital: Skills, knowledge, and experiences of individuals.

  • Cultural Capital: The cultural knowledge and resources that influence social mobility.

  • Natural Capital: Environmental resources and ecosystem services.

  • Built Capital: Physical infrastructure that supports communities.

Dynamic Nature of Community

• Changing Definitions: No universal definition of community exists; they vary by historical and global context.

• Personal vs. Impersonal Relationships: Different societies can be categorized based on their emphasis on personal relationships (e.g., local communities) versus impersonal, formal interactions (contractual relationships).

Community Change and Global Context

• Key Actors in Change: Three main actors shape community change—markets, states, and civil society.

  • Market Influences: How economic factors and markets shape community resources and lifestyle.

  • State Influence: The role government plays in shaping how communities develop.

  • Civil Society: The role of community organizations and non-profits in advocating for change.

• Historical Context Matters: Understanding that changes in communities are not isolated; they are deeply rooted in historical social, political, and economic contexts.

Natural Capital

• Defining Natural Capital: Stock of natural resources and ecosystem services essential for human well-being and economic development.

  • Ecosystem Services Examples: Clean air, water, biodiversity, and other resources affecting health and well-being.

• Indigenous vs. Colonial Approaches: Different ways communities interact with their natural capital:

  • Indigenous Approach: Focus on sustainability and cultural values in natural resource use.

  • Colonial Approach: Utilitarian extraction of resources, often leading to depletion and degradation.

Land Use and Community

• Changing Land Use: Historical changes in land use affect the natural capital communities have access to.

  • Case Studies: Examples from various communities illustrate how land use has transformed, like urban expansion in Milton and the establishment of protected areas.

• Discussion Prompt: Reflect on how land use in local communities has changed over time due to historical and current influences.

Conclusion and Next Steps

• Ongoing Classes: The course will continue to unpack aspects of natural capital and examine case studies that illustrate concepts discussed in class.

Lecture notes – Natural Capital pt. 2

• Different perspectives on land and nature

  • Utilitarian perspective

    • Land = appropriation of nature and natural resources

  • Indigenous perspective

    • In many indigenous languages there is no word for nature

    • The human and non-human worlds are inseparable 

    • The sacred and the profane, or the separation of the human, natural, and divine worlds is a colonial construct

      • When indigenous communities harvest, they encounter the divine, their ancestors (past), and the non-human world

    • Nature is living, interconnected and interdependent

      • Mountains and volcanoes are seen as living being with emotions – Tayta Chimborazo gave birth to ancestors

    • Nature is part of humankind and not separate from it

      • They give back to pachamama in a reciprocal relationship

    • The rights of nature; does nature have rights?

      • In ecuador nature is a subject of rights

      • Seeing nature as living as its own community

  • Boillet – importance of place names

    • Naming a place/space gives it meaning, agency, and humanizes the landscape

      • Humanizing nature does not coincide with a reductionist/utilitarian view of western science

      • As a result, relationship with the non-human world are not a game “against nature” that includes a notion of social relationships with the elements of the environment

      • Landscapes as living beings with an “inner world” 

  • Volcanoes mama tungurahua and tayta chimborazo

    • Chimborazo is male (closest to the sun on earth), and tungurahua is female; in the indigenous world they are in a relationship

    • When tungurahua explodes explodes when she finds out that chimborazo is cheating on her with the other volcano

    • Humanizing nature

  • Apus – sacred mountain spirits

    • “Who says mountains don't cry? Mountains cry when they love and are separated from those they love  just like people cry when they are separated from their loved ones”

  • Legend has it that tatya chimborazo has a secret entrance with the riches inside

    • If you take any of it one must reciprocate with a gift, their riches (seeds) are turned to dust

    • Chimborazo as a father figure; providing essential for life

  • Privatizing nature: choque with modernity

    • How do you privatize a living being?

      • Ownership in the communal sense is considered a sacrilege that is rooted in a occidental separation of humans and nature which leads to the commodification and exploitation of natural resources within a  capitalist economic system

• Pacha mama

  • Pach “all that there is”

    • Kay pacha – world above

    • Hanan pacha – this world

    • Ukhu pacha – world below

  • Mama – relational, the source of life

  • Pacha mama roughly translates to Mother Earth, Holy Earth, and Spirit of life

    • Earthly spirit along w Apus and other minor spirits inhabits Kay PAcha the world here that surrounds us

    • Everything exists is in time and occupies a place

    • Spiritual beings are not out of the space-time coordinates

      • Mot segregated from the universe and they relate to it, particularly to the human being

      • Located in different layers of reality

• Natural resources, such as land, air, and water are not simply at the disposition of human beings, but living beings themselves, or as Estermann calls them “organs in the great cosmic organism, life, and sources life”

  • The andean kichwa

• Two extremely different perspectives (indigenous and utilitarian) can become problematic, especially when both perspectives exist in the same community

• Framing indigenous understandings and concepts

  • Indigenous values/concepts are living concepts whose definition is based on continual intra and inter-community relationships combined with a complex relationship between individuals, communities, and the non-human world and larger cosmos – deeply spiritual relationships framed by reciprocity, relationality complementarity, correspondence and cyclicity and defined by the normative practice of these concepts.

• The last ice merchant video notes:

  • In what ways is natural capital being used in the film?

  • What approach is being used here?

  • In what ways has “modernity” changed the use of natural capital?

  • Working on ice mines

    • The only ice miner in chimborazo

  • Started at 15 years old, now 67

  • Mines ice, wraps it hay, then straps it to a donkey

  • Many of the previous ice miners have died or gotten to old

  • Nobody needs the ice anymore, they get ice from ice factories

  • His brother stopped working with ice

    • Doesn’t think it's worth selling ice anymore 

  • Ice is cheap; “our work is barely worth nothing”

  • Freezers and fridges has made ice mining less necessary

  • Softer ice has disappeared, he now has to go higher to find ice

  • Dangerous job and hard work – rocks can fall from above ay any second

  • Too poor to stop working

  • Juan (the youngest brother) stopped 10 years ago and now works in construction

    • Feels sorry he stopped going

  • None of the sons or grandsons of the ice merchants want to go ice mining

    • Suffering cold and no money (from the children's perspective)

  • Doesn’t want to lose the culture associated with being a ice merchant

    • The livelihood providing meaning rather than just wealth

• Indigenous and colonial approach isn’t a perfect/strict binary

  • In the video presented its a bit of both

  • Eg. adapting modernity by incorporating aspects of it to their indigenous approaches

40 Acres and a Lie pt.2 notes

Historical Significance of the Sea Islands

• The Sea Islands, located off the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina, feature a rich and intricate historical backdrop.

• Originally inhabited by Indigenous peoples, the islands later became pivotal during the transatlantic slave trade.

• The primary agricultural commodities cultivated included rice initially, followed by cotton, both of which became integral to the Southern economy.

• Enslaved Africans introduced diverse agricultural techniques and knowledge, which played a crucial role in the establishment of the region's agricultural prosperity.

• The natural environment, characterized by giant oaks, salt marshes, and lagoons, created ideal conditions for plantation agriculture and facilitated the development of a unique ecosystem intertwined with the culture.

• A unique Creole identity emerged among the enslaved communities, shaped by resilience, cultural blending, and the creation of new traditions, such as Gullah culture, which is famous for its distinctive language and vibrant folklore.

The Landings: A Gated Community with a Complex Past

• In recent years, The Landings—a large gated community on Skidaway Island—has developed as a commercial and residential attraction.

• The community offers an array of amenities, including golf courses, marinas, and various recreational facilities, showcasing a lifestyle that draws newcomers and visitors alike.

• However, as one enters The Landings via bridge, there's a contrasting undertone of its historical significance as a former hub for a flourishing Black community.

• The area, often referred to as “a Black utopia,” represents a painful juxtaposition to the ongoing socioeconomic dynamics that continue to affect its residents.

• Real estate prices have surged, causing average home sale prices to exceed $800,000 in 2022, which raises pressing concerns about affordability and accessibility for residents from various economic backgrounds, especially those with historical ties to the land.

The Historical Roots and Demographics

• The demographic makeup of The Landings has shifted dramatically over time.

• Currently, the community boasts a predominantly white population, with only 1% of Skidaway residents identifying as Black; this stark contrast reflects the significant historical presence of Black communities.

• This demographic transition marks a significant departure from the historical presence of a vibrant Black community, which played an active role in shaping the cultural fabric of the region.

• The historical legacy includes more than 1,200 formerly enslaved individuals, who once called this land home, representing both historical prosperity and subsequent disenfranchisement, as many families lost their land following the Civil War.

The Reclamation and Resistance of Land

• Leaders like Ulysses Houston and Garrison Frazier emerged as influential advocates for land ownership and self-governance following emancipation.

• These figures embodied the dreams and aspirations of freed slaves striving to reclaim their rights and build viable communities, often emphasizing the importance of education and land ownership for economic independence.

• Their efforts faced challenges, including legal complexities and the tragic reversion of land back to former slaveholders, resulting in a cycle of lost opportunities and broken promises for many Black families.

• Such obstacles illustrate lingering issues of legal recognition and property rights, with the stories of struggle and resilience among families being passed down through generations, highlighting their fight for justice and survival amidst adversity.

Oral Histories and Personal Narratives

• Personal testimonies from residents, notably figures like Karen Dove Barr and Linda Brown, illuminate the ongoing dynamics within the community, offering a glimpse into life as a minority in a predominantly white enclave.

• Linda Brown navigates her unique identity as the only Black voice in her community, sharing her experiences of isolation and connection to her roots, as well as her efforts to maintain her cultural identity amidst overwhelming social contrasts.

• Her frequent visits to Atlanta’s predominantly Black neighborhoods offer her a stark contrast to her life in Skidaway, serving as both an escape and a reminder of her heritage.

• These personal narratives serve as vital archives of collective memory, fundamental for understanding the community's historical context, as residents recount tales of their ancestors, their hopes, dreams, losses, and the legacy they continue to carry.

Acknowledging History for Future Redemption

• Current efforts aim to rectify the historical injustices surrounding land ownership, particularly for the descendants of original land title holders who still feel the impact of past disenfranchisement.

• The complexities of legal claims and property rights remain contentious and unresolved issues in contemporary society, as families battle to reclaim their rightful heritage.

• Discussions surrounding reparations are increasingly significant, as they seek to address the consequences of systemic inequities arising from centuries-old injustices.

• Legislative efforts, such as the Freedmen's Bureau Preservation Act, exemplify the ongoing commitment to preserve historical narratives to inform current dialogues about race and property ownership rights.

Conclusion

• The Sea Islands, characterized by modern gated communities like The Landings, encapsulate a reality steeped in dual narratives of beauty and betrayal.

• Beneath the surface of scenic landscapes lies a profound historical legacy marked by struggle, resilience, and ongoing fights for recognition and justice.

• Understanding this intertwined history is crucial for addressing contemporary inequalities and promoting just dialogues concerning land use, community dynamics, and the pursuit of reparations, as stories of the past echo in the lives of today's residents.

Chapter 2 notes

• Eric Ritter faced repeated issues with elk destroying his fences and competing with his cattle for grass.

• He contacted the Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW) for financial assistance, which he received but found insufficient to solve the problem.

• The Colorado Cattlemen’s Association invited Eric to a meeting with the DOW, hunters, outfitters, and environmentalists to find solutions.

• Eric initially felt uncomfortable working with environmentalists, especially Sue Graves, whom he nicknamed "Mother Earth."

• The group formed the Habitat Partnership Program to address conflicts over natural resource use in mountain valleys.

• They identified shared concerns, including:

  • Fire suppression leading to tree invasion in meadows and pastures.

  • Climate change increasing fire risks and reducing grass regeneration.

  • Limited grass higher up forcing elk and deer into cattle areas.

• Solutions included:

  • Controlled burns to restore pastures and meadows.

  • Installing new fences with visible white strips to deter elk and deer without disrupting cattle.

• Collaboration improved relationships, and Eric developed mutual respect with the environmentalists, including Sue.

• Eric and Sue now share a friendly rapport, with playful banter reflecting their partnership.

• “Whereas most Native American tribes used the land to develop a subsistence economy, with a strong focus on converting natural capital to social and cultural capital, most

• Europeans came to the Americas to transform natural capital into financial capital”

• Indigenous peoples in North America actively managed land for:

• Grass availability for wild ruminants (e.g., buffalo, deer, elk, moose).

• Crop production, including corn, beans, berries, edible roots, and greens.

• Sustainable use of trees for tools and homes.

• Irrigation systems in arid regions.

• Land management by Indigenous peoples altered biodiversity over time by favoring certain species.

• Europeans viewed the land as wild and untamed due to differences in land use:

• Europe had privatized, fenced, and cultivated land.

• Indigenous practices focused on subsistence economies, converting natural capital into social and cultural capital.

• Europeans sought to transform natural capital into financial capital by:

• Exploiting resources (e.g., fur, timber, minerals) until depletion.

• Establishing self-sufficient settlements focused on exporting products.

• European governments and private companies financed explorations and settlements, expecting wealth in return.

• Examples include stock-financed settlements and government-sponsored expeditions like Meriwether Lewis's.

• William Clark’s Corps of Discovery and other westward explorations aimed to secure land for financial gain while outpacing English, French, and Spanish territorial claims.

• These expeditions contributed cultural capital through knowledge of new peoples and lands but prioritized accessing and exploiting natural resources for wealth

• New England Land Policies:

• Land granted by the English Crown to trading companies, which distributed it to settlers.

• Settlers formed central villages surrounded by farmland.

• Villages supported other economic activities like manufacturing and crafts.

• Southern Land Policies:

• Land granted directly to individuals, leading to large, self-sufficient plantations reliant on slave labor.

• Few villages or towns were established.

• Westward Expansion:

• Early settlement west of the Appalachians was slow.

• Northeast forests depleted in the 1840s led logging companies to the Great Lakes region.

• Gold and silver discoveries in the late 1840s attracted prospectors to the mountain West.

• Homestead Act of 1862:

• Granted settlers 160 acres if they lived on and improved the land for five years.

• Railroads received land grants and sold tracts to fund rail construction.

• Settlers in the Midwest and Great Plains lived dispersed, with towns forming as service and transportation hubs.

• Mining Company Practices:

• In states like West Virginia and Kentucky, companies bought land and mineral rights, often causing land collapses and destruction of homes.

• Timber rights were also acquired for mine shoring, depleting nearby natural resources.

• Absentee-owned companies transformed natural capital into financial capital, draining resources and wealth from rural communities.

• Causes of Urban Sprawl and Development in Remote Areas:

• Often driven by the use of political capital (e.g., growth machine dynamics).

• Leads to paving over farmland and natural areas, such as wetlands.

• Consequences of Urban Sprawl:

• Declines in water quality.

• Reduced carbon sequestration and increased greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming.

• Increased flooding risks.

• Loss of biodiversity and habitat.

• Reduced open space and increased traffic congestion.

• Decline in air quality with serious health impacts.

• Community and Government Responses:

• Growing recognition of these issues as undesirable.

• Mechanisms like zoning, property taxes, and tax abatements used by local governments to manage land use.

• Conflicts over land use are increasing, particularly in rural areas.

• Challenges in Rural Land Use Conflicts:

• Large corporations, such as those operating confined-animal feeding operations, often sue rural counties attempting to limit their activities.

• Corporations leverage abundant financial capital for legal battles, while rural governments and nonprofits face resource constraints.

• Legal expenses for corporations are tax-deductible, adding to their advantage.

• Role of Political Capital:

• Political influence and government subsidies contribute to urban sprawl and resource exploitation.

• Sustainable land use depends on collaboration through programs like the Habitat Partnership Program to find common ground and alternatives.

• Steamboat Springs, Colorado

  • Known for its ski resort, shopping, scenic views, and tourism.

  • Steamboat Ski and Resort Corporation contributes significantly to the local economy.

  • Growth concerns arose in the 1980s due to traffic, real estate prices, and land conservation issues.

  • Residents, ranchers, and conservationists united against new development.

  • Concerns included loss of grazing land, pollution, and high-density resort development.

  • Resulted in the cancellation of the resort project and preservation of over 20,000 acres for ranching and conservation.

  • Partnerships formed among ranchers, conservationists, local governments, and businesses.

  • Key programs like Vision 2020 and Environment 2000 fostered dialogue and mutual respect.

  • Steamboat Ski Corporation aligned with conservation goals to preserve the area’s heritage.

  • The Yampa River System Legacy Project (1996)

    • Aimed to protect the ecological health of the Yampa River and surrounding agricultural lands.

    • Involved diverse stakeholders and submitted a successful $6 million grant proposal to Great Outdoors Colorado.

    • Focused on conservation, wildlife habitat, clean air and water, and appropriate recreation.

  • County officials and elected champions were instrumental in advancing preservation efforts.

  • Master plans emphasized protecting rural character while enabling sustainable development.

  • The project ended in 2005 but left a legacy of conservation and community-driven planning.

  • Highlighted the power of collaboration, shared passion, and mutual respect to achieve common goals.

  • The city’s 2011 Economic Development Policy reflects ongoing commitment to conservation and working landscapes.

• Throughout US history land has been viewed as valuable for  

  • provision of natural resources to be turned into financial capital (logging, mining, trapping)

  • production of natural resources to be transformed into financial capital (farming and some timber production);

  • consumption to enhance cultural, built, and social capital (those with wealth purchasing land on which to build elegant homes and large estates to entertain their friends); 

  • speculation to directly increase financial capital (land bought with the expectation that its price will increase); 

  • creation of the foundation for built capital (housing developments, shopping malls, and factories); 

  • provision of important ecosystem services (clean water and air, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration)

  • preservation of cultural capital (land valued for its spiritual and historical meanings).

• Differing values is problematic regarding access to and control of land 

  • What one person does with their land affects other surrounding land

• Clean, potable water is considered the top challenge for humanity today.

• In the western United States, water scarcity has historically shaped its development and remains critical.

• Early settlers in the West recognized water as essential and managed it carefully.

• Albuquerque relied on underground aquifers for decades, assuming rivers replenished them.

• Overuse and changing times highlighted the need for conservation efforts.

• astern regions face water quality challenges, while the West struggles with access.

• Prolonged droughts in the 2000s have intensified disputes among farmers, environmentalists, and urban areas.

• States and provinces have increasingly turned to lawsuits over interstate river water rights.

• The adage, “Whiskey is for drinking, water is for fighting,” remains relevant today.

• Water scarcity impacts urban growth, agriculture, and environmental conservation.

• Cities like Los Angeles expanded by diverting water from distant regions.

• Land values in arid areas depended on the availability and reliability of imported water.

• Struggles over whether water should be a public or private resource have been significant.

• The movie Chinatown (1974) dramatizes the historical conflicts over water rights in California.

• Los Angeles’ Acquisition of Owens Valley Water (1904-1913)

  • LA controlled Owens Valley water for 93 years until 2006.

  • City officials acquired water rights deceptively in 1904 to avoid inflated land prices.

  • Decision made to prioritize water for LA’s urban growth over Owens Valley agriculture.

  • Public funds were used to construct the aqueduct as a public trust.

  • Construction began in the 1910s and continued through the 1940s.

  • Resistance from Owens Valley residents included physical attacks on the aqueduct.

  • US Forest Service declared Owens Valley part of Sierra Forest Reserve to support LA.

  • Owens Valley communities faced decline as water diverted to LA.

  • 1991: LA and Inyo County agreed on a groundwater management plan.

  • 2006: California Court of Appeals ordered restoration of a 62-mile stretch of Owens River and banned aqueduct use.

  • Lawsuits by the California Attorney General, Owens Valley Committee, and Sierra Club succeeded.

  • Water returned to Owens River and Lake, reviving ecosystems.

  • Wildlife returned, including freshwater shrimp, birds, waterfowl, birds of prey, owls, and coyotes.

  • Severe drought reduced runoff to 50% of normal and snowpack to 30%.

  • Mitigation projects continue to address water scarcity and ecosystem challenges.

  • The battle over Owens Valley water highlights the tension between urban growth and rural sustainability.

  • Legal and environmental activism can restore damaged ecosystems but face ongoing challenges from climate impacts.

• Providing water to one community often deprives another, leading to disputes.

• Southwest and western plains experience intense debates over water rights and allocation.

• Caliente, Nevada:

  • Concern over Las Vegas purchasing water rights under the appropriation doctrine.

  • Water diversion threatens the water supply for Caliente residents

• San Luis Valley, Colorado:

  • Denver seeks access to the aquifer, opposed by rural communities and landowners.

• Cities claim they drive the economy and deserve water access.

  • Farmers labeled as "selfish" for resisting water reallocation.

• Farmers argue cities are wasteful and underestimate the importance of water for agriculture

• Ogallala Aquifer Issues:

  • Irrigation and feedlot operations in Garden City, Kansas, are depleting the aquifer.

  • Water table is lowering, forcing rural farmers to dig deeper wells.

• Water crisis in the West is real, multifaceted, and exacerbated by global warming.

• Conflicts exist not only between urban and rural users but also among different types of agricultural operations (e.g., highly capitalized vs. traditional dryland farmers).

• Ogallala Aquifer concerns:

  • The aquifer is non-rechargeable (except in Nebraska Sand Hills), raising fears about the future of economic activities.

  • Increased biofuel production exacerbates water use and further strains the aquifer.

• Sources of water for human use:

  • Surface water (lakes, streams, oceans, e.g., Tampa’s desalinization plant).

  • Groundwater from underground aquifers, requiring rules for access and control, governed mainly by state laws.

  • The federal government subsidizes water provision, especially in the West.

• Water law evolution

  • From the 1880s to 1980, the government focused on augmenting water supply for multiple users.

  • Today, the focus is on reallocation and improved management due to environmental concerns and climate change.

  • Example of natural capital and political capital influencing one another through law and policy making

• Conflicts arise from market-driven water transfers (who will pay the most) and their impact on third parties.

• Urban areas generally have more market power, potentially disadvantaging rural areas.

• The role of rural land managers in improving water quality is increasingly recognized.

• Rural land management affects water quality, making cooperation between rural and urban areas vital.

• Middle Rio Grande Valley (MRG) water claims:

  • Pueblo peoples

    • Oldest historical claim to water dating back to Spanish rule (Mercedes de Aqua).

    • Claims involve both water quantity and quality, as cultural rituals demand pure water.

  • Farmers

    • Historical rights dating back to Spanish rule under the acequia system (irrigation ditches).

    • Managed locally with elected conservancy district oversight.

  • Munipalties

    • Cities like Albuquerque have purchased or been granted water rights over time, using the San Juan/Chama Diversion for water supply.

• Downstream water rights

  • Texas

    • Rio Grande Compact (1957) guarantees Texas access to water, along with New Mexico and Colorado.

  • Mexico

    • Maintains rights to Rio Grande water based on historical laws from Spanish rule, codified in the 1848 treaty with the US.

• Water supply for NYC

  • Nine million residents rely on reservoirs in the Catskill and Delaware watersheds in upstate New York for drinking water.

  • New York City owns less than 10% of the 1,900 square-mile watershed.

  • Watershed has a population of around 77,000 year-round residents, with many summer residents.

  • Majority of the 350 farms in the area are dairy farms.

  • Long-standing conflict between NYC and watershed areas, focusing on land acquisitions and regulatory authority

  • EPA’s surface water treatment rule (SWTR)

    • Issued in 1989 under the Safe Drinking Water Act, requiring filtration of all surface water supplies.

    • NYC could avoid filtration costs if it protected its watershed effectively, ensuring water safety.

  • NYC has had high-quality drinking water for 150 years, but microbial contamination has become a concern, highlighted by boil-water alerts since 1993.

  • Pollution sources include wastewater discharges and runoff from urban and agricultural areas.

  • EPA waiver and strategy (1993)

    • EPA granted NYC a waiver from filtration requirements if the city protected the Catskill/Delaware watersheds’ water quality.

    • The EPA urged negotiations with NYC, state officials, watershed communities, and environmental groups to create an effective and equitable program.

  • Negotiated agreement (1993):

    • The agreement aimed to protect the water supply without the costly filtration plant, addressing the concerns of both urban and upstate residents.

    • NYC agreed to regulate land use in the watershed, acquire sensitive lands, conduct extensive water quality testing, and support partnership programs.

  • Upstate /downstate partnerships

    • The agreement aimed to protect the water supply without the costly filtration plant, addressing the concerns of both urban and upstate residents.

    • NYC agreed to regulate land use in the watershed, acquire sensitive lands, conduct extensive water quality testing, and support partnership programs.

  • Implementation began in 1997.

  • In 2007, the USEPA and New York State Department of Health determined that NYC’s watershed protection program met the requirements for unfiltered water supplies.

• Riparian doctrine (eastern US) governs water use for landowners adjacent to steam or lake

  • Landowners don’t own the water but can use it reasonably, as long as it doesn't severely diminish stream flow or lake levels.

• Appropriation doctrine (Western US) is used in arid states like california stating users can divert surface water as long as its for beneficial purposes and within the amount permitted

• Groundwater laws:

  • Early 20th century: Landowners could use groundwater on their land, even if it depleted supplies for neighboring landowners.

  • More recently: Some states modified laws to prevent harm to neighboring landowners and waterways, ensuring fair share and preventing over-extraction.

• As population grows and water resources decrease, acquiring and transferring established water rights addresses new demands.

  • Example: Las Vegas has acquired water rights from surrounding valleys, negatively affecting rural areas.

• Water and sanitation as a basic natural capital

  • Critical for consumption and sanitation

  • Federal and state program like Clean Water SRF and Safe Drinking Water SRF funded infrastructure to treat and convey water and wastewater

• Impact on federal investment:

  • Billions spent on municipal, utility district, and household water programs.

  • Helped rural America develop: 1950, 50% of rural households lacked plumbing; by 2013, under 1% lacked complete plumbing.

• Challenges for some communities:

  • Uneven access to infrastructure, particularly in American Indian and Alaska Native communities (e.g., some Hopi and Navajo communities had 10% lacking plumbing in 2008).

  • 2013 data: 6% of American Indians and Alaska Natives lacked complete plumbing.

• Resilience issues due to climate change:

  • Droughts impact communities relying on self-supply (household wells and septic systems).

  • Example: In 2014, Tulare County, CA, faced a crisis as household wells dried up due to drought, especially in unincorporated, underserved communities.

• Legacy of unincorporation

  • Farm worker communities in CA's Central Valley were often unincorporated and missed out on federal funding for water and wastewater systems.

  • These areas had contaminated well water, with high nitrate and pollutant levels, even before the drought crisis.

• Water Scarcity and Cultural Capital:

• Settlers from water-abundant regions sought to recreate green environments in the West, leading to expectations of water abundance.

• Western cities (e.g., Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Denver) built in arid areas, drawing water from distant rural areas.

• Los Angeles Water Acquisition:

• Early 20th century: Los Angeles acquired rights to water from rural areas, including Owens Valley in California.

• LADWP built aqueducts, diverting water to the city despite local resistance and sabotage.

• Impact on Mono Lake:

• By 1941, LADWP diverted Mono Lake’s tributaries 350 miles to meet LA’s water needs.

• Mono Lake's volume halved, salinity doubled, and the ecosystem collapsed.

• Key problems included loss of biodiversity, degraded air quality, and disruption of food chains.

• Community Response:

• In 1978, Mono County residents and the Mono Lake Committee (MLC) formed to advocate for the lake.

• MLC organized advocacy efforts, gaining legal and legislative support, and mobilized 16,000 members.

• Resolution and Restoration:

• After court battles, Los Angeles was required to restore Owens River and halt further water diversion.

• Result: Restoration of water flow to the river and lake, with vegetation and wildlife returning.

• Cultural and Political Capital:

• MLC leveraged cultural capital (conservation values) and built political alliances to seek a win-win solution.

• The group helped LA meet water needs without harming the environment.

• Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms in a given area, including ecosystem, species, and genetic diversity.

• Maintaining biodiversity at all levels enhances resilience to change.

• Ecosystem diversity is essential for species diversity.

• Debate over wetlands protection: Some see wetlands (e.g., prairie potholes in North Dakota) as wasted farmland, while others see them as crucial for migrating waterfowl and local biodiversity.

• Conflict and political capital

  • Farmers and farm groups (e.g., Farm Bureau) prioritize agricultural productivity.

  • Audubon Society and urban allies mobilized to protect wetlands and promote biodiversity, diversifying local economies through eco-tourism.

• 2002 farm bill

  • The Farm Bill included provisions to pay farmers to protect biodiversity and water quality while supporting agricultural production.

  • The bill has mixed incentives, offering both positive and perverse effects on natural capital in rural areas.

• Lack of genetic diversity in crops and animals makes them more vulnerable to diseases and pests.

• Disease outbreaks (e.g., avian flu, potato famine, southern corn leaf blight) highlight the risks of insufficient biodiversity in agriculture.

• Invasive species are introduced plants, animals, or insects that out-compete native species when removed from their natural predators, leading to monocultures.

  • Kudzu: Introduced to control soil erosion in the South, but it overtakes native plants, disrupting wildlife habitats.

  • Chestnut Blight: Introduced by imported chestnut trees, it decimated 25% of Appalachian trees by 1950, with slow detection and response.

  • Emerald Ash Borer (EAB): Discovered in Michigan in 2002, likely arriving on wood packing materials, it has killed millions of ash trees, spreading across multiple US states and Canada.

    • EAB has killed over 30 million ash trees in Michigan alone.

    • Caused regulatory actions (e.g., quarantines, fines) and significant financial losses for municipalities, property owners, and industries

    • Emerald Ash Borer Community Preparedness Plan: Developed by Michigan state and federal agencies, shared across other states to prevent EAB spread.

    • Emphasized community awareness, education, and mobilization to stop the spread through firewood and wood products.

• “Without mobilizing social capital and political capital, natural and financial capital cannot be protected.” (p.59)

• CO2 Levels and Global Warming:

• 2014 Mauna Loa CO2 Reading: 397 ppm, the highest in at least 650,000 years.

• Pre-industrial CO2 levels (1000–1800 CE): 275–285 ppm.

• Over 40% increase in CO2 in 250 years, compared to less than 5% variation in the previous two millennia.

• Impacts of Climate Change:

• Natural Capital: Changes in water regimes, increased pests, and environmental shifts.

• Human Capital: Health threats from food production changes, fresh water access, diseases, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events.

• Extreme Weather: Longer droughts, intense rainfall, and snowfall affect soil erosion and water quality.

• Challenges in Addressing Climate Change:

• Slow Action in the U.S.: Difficulty in justifying the transaction costs for reducing greenhouse gases and sequestering carbon.

• Market for Pollution Trading: The U.S. uses pollution trading to comply with laws, but lacks a similar market for carbon sequestration.

• Political Resistance: The U.S. government’s reluctance to acknowledge human-caused climate change prevents carbon sequestration from becoming a tradable good.

• Adaptation to Climate Change:

• Communities can adapt by avoiding flood plains and altering water use.

• Difficulty in recognizing gradual climate changes due to historical weather patterns and natural cycles.

• People often see climate changes as anomalies or part of normal cycles, delaying action.

• Rosebud Sioux Wind Turbine Installation (2003):

• Location: Rosebud Sioux Indian Reservation, South Dakota.

• Capacity: 750 kilowatt NEG MICON wind turbine.

• Preparation: 8 years, beginning in 1995 with wind data collection.

• Grant: DOE cooperative grant (50/50) obtained in 1998.

• Partnerships: Worked with ICOUP, Distributed Generation Inc., and USDA Rural Utilities Service for the first USDA loan to a tribe for wind energy.

• Energy Generation and Sales:

• Powers the Rosebud Casino, motel, and surrounding areas.

• Excess electricity sold to Basin Electric and Ellsworth Air Force Base.

• Green Power: First tribal sale of renewable energy certificates (Green Tags) to NativeEnergy of Vermont.

• Jobs and Training:

• Generated ~100 jobs during construction.

• Partnership with Mitchell Technical Institute to train 15-20 students for turbine servicing.

• Long-Term Wind Development Plan:

• Phase 1 of a multi-megawatt wind development plan across Great Plains.

• Planned 30-megawatt wind farm on the reservation.

• Tribe earns a percentage of profits and lease money from turbines.

• Sustainability Initiatives:

• Partnered with Pine Ridge Reservation for solar heating systems for employees.

• Pilot home built with solar heating, small wind turbine, and windbreak trees.

• Working with Trees, Water & People and a Bush Foundation grant for retrofitting homes for energy efficiency.

• Impact:

• The tribe's energy projects promote clean energy, create jobs, and support environmental sustainability for future generations.

• US Energy Consumption:

• US consumes about 20% of the world’s energy but less than 4.5% of the population.

• Consumption shows an upward trend since WWII, with dips due to oil price hikes and recessions.

• Peak consumption occurred in the 1970s, again in 2007, and dipped during the Great Recession and post-2014 oil price drop.

• Future surge in consumption may result from low oil prices and economic growth in 2014.

• Energy Sources:

• As of 2012, only 8% of US energy came from renewables.

• US relies on cheap foreign energy and subsidizes domestic petroleum extraction, which harms rural areas.

• Fracking technology is controversial due to its environmental impact, including water contamination risks.

• Community Actions to Reduce Carbon Emissions:

• Small communities use hybrid cars, like Toyota Prius and Honda Civic, for city employees.

• Some cities promote cycling for police during good weather.

• Smart-growth strategies encourage public transportation, recycling, and walkable neighborhoods.

• Collaboration with private companies to generate wind power.

• Renewable Energy Incentives:

• Renewable Energy Production Tax Credit (PTC) offers 2.2 cents per kWh for wind, solar, geothermal, and bioenergy.

• PTC short-term and insufficient for sustained renewable energy growth.

• Senate voted down PTC extension in January 2015.

• Natural Gas & Oil Extraction:

• Rural communities in states like Montana, North Dakota, and Texas attracted by natural gas and oil extraction via hydraulic fracturing (fracking).

• Economic growth driven by job creation and investment from oil and gas industries.

• Risks and Impacts:

• Risks to natural capital, including water and land damage.

• Social and cultural impacts from the influx of short-term workers ("man camps").

• Boom-Bust Cycle:

• Rapid increase in oil supply, coupled with decreased demand (e.g., slower growth in China), leads to economic instability in these rural communities.

Key Terms

Appropriation doctrine allows water rights to be established by the first claimant even if that user does not own land adjacent to the watercourse. The user is limited to a specified amount of water that can be withdrawn. 

Biodiversity is the variety of life in all its forms, levels, and combinations. 

Confined-animal feeding operations involve raising livestock and poultry in an industrial fashion. The animals are confined in large buildings where the conditions are controlled so as to produce a uniform product. A huge amount of manure is a by-product. To the degree possible, the production system is rationalized to increase output per unit of labor, much as occurs on the industrial assembly line. Also, holding the animals in a confined space promotes efficient conversion of feed to meat or eggs because the animals expend very little energy in movement. Because the animals are in such close proximity with one another, special precautions must be taken to prevent disease. 

Countercyclical payments are available for covered commodities whenever the effective (market) price is less than the target price. 

Ecosystem services— critical services such as water purification, biodiversity maintenance, and climate stabilization— are generated spontaneously by healthy ecosystems. Because these services are chronically undervalued in the marketplace, they are highly vulnerable to degradation.

An invasive species is one (1) that is non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under consideration and (2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. 

Riparian doctrine limits water rights to landowners whose lands are contiguous to streams. They can make reasonable use of the water but cannot severely diminish its flow. 

Transaction costs are incurred when making an exchange. These costs can be direct monetary costs, such as fees, or indirectly monetized, such as the time or social interactions necessary to facilitate the exchange.