Text pg 462-473, Text pg 476-484, Text 5.1 and 5.2, Text 5.3

Lesson 1 - Organic Compounds and Naming

• Organic compounds are made of carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens

• To name an organic compound, use the following steps:

  • Use the prefix that indicates the number of carbons in the main carbon chain

  • Then, use the suffix that indicates the functional groups

    • Functional groups either branch off the main chain, or have multiple bonds

  • A chain may have to be drawn

    • Each carbon present is a point that is connected by a straight line segment

    • Do not include hydrogens

    • Draw extra connecting lines to indicate bonds

    • Include any functional group that may branch off

  • Number the longest carbon chain so that the functional groups have the lowest number

  • Write each group as X-, prefix, suffix, where X is the number of the carbon it is found on

    • If X is 1, do not include it

  • If it is in a ring, include “cyclo-” in front of the prefix

    • Benzene Ring - A ring of 6 carbons, with alternating double bonds

  • The functional group with less carbon goes first, and ends in -yl

Lesson 2 - Chemical Reactions

• Synthesis - 2 or more reactants combine to form a single product

  • A + B → C

• Decomposition - A single reactant breaks down into 2 or more compounds

  • C → A + B

• Combustion reactions produce heat, and require fuel, oxygen gas, and a spark

  • Complete Combustion - A hydrocarbon burns in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapour

    • C_xH_y + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

  • Incomplete Combustion - A hydrocarbon burns in the presence of insufficient oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, and/or carbon monoxide, and/or soot, and/or water vapour

    • C_xH_y + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + C + CO

• Single Displacement - A single element displaces its counterpart in a compound when it is more reactive

  • A + BC → B + AC

  • The compounds are usually aqueous, and the individual element is its natural state

• Double Displacement - Two counterpart elements in a compound replace one another

  • AB + CD → AD + CB

  • The starting products are both aqueous, and the products are dictated by the solubility table

  • If two products are aqueous, no reaction has occurred

• Predicting states

  • Aqueous - When something is soluble in water

    • Ions are soluble, and will be dispersed in water

    • Ions can only conduct electricity when able to move in an aqueous state

• To balance a reaction, consider the total number of unique atoms on each side, and add coefficients when necessary to balance the equation

Lesson 3 - Net Ionic Equations and Particulate Diagrams

• Law of Conservation of Mass - The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction

• Law of Definite Composition - No matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts by mass

• Particulate diagrams:

  • Particles can be atoms, molecules, or ions

  • Use shapes or patterns to denote what each present particle represents

  • Draw the reaction happening, with the balanced amount of particles on each side

• Some combinations of ions are insoluble, so they can be written in a net ionic equation

  • Write out the entire balanced equation

  • Separate every aqueous compound into ions, but leave the insoluble product as is, to form the total ionic equation

  • Cross out the “spectator” ions that are not included in the insoluble product

  • Rewrite the equation as the two ions forming the insoluble product to form the net ionic equation

Lesson 4 - Redox Reactions

• Oxidation - The loss of electrons

  • Reducing Agent - The particle that causes another particle to be reduced

• Reduction - The gain of electrons

  • Oxidizing Agent - The particle that causes another particle to be oxidized

• Oxidation Number - The charge the atom would have if electrons were not shared but transferred completely

  • Written with the sign before the number

  • An atom in its elemental form has an ON = 0

  • A monoatomic ion has an ON = ionic charge

  • The sum of ON values for atoms in a molecule = 0

  • The sum of ON values in a polyatomic ion = ionic charge

  • Follow the group-specific rules in this order, as applicable

    • Oxygen: -2 (except for -1 in peroxides)

    • Hydrogen: -1 with metals, +1 with nonmetals

    • Halogens: -1 with metals and nonmetals, but will be positive when with oxygen

    • Alkaline Earth Metals: +2 in all compounds

    • Alkali Metals: +1 in all compounds

  • Use the group-specific rules first, then apply all remaining oxidation numbers so as to balance the oxidation numbers in a given atom or molecule

    • Assign oxidation numbers as if it were for only one of that atom, not the total number of that atom

      • Ex. For 2Na, the oxidation number is +1, not +2

    • Only consider subscripts and coefficients when considering oxidation number balancing

      • Ex. For SO₃, oxygen has an oxidation number of -2. Because there is no charge on the molecule, sulfur must have an oxidation number equal to -2×3

• To determine if it is a redox reaction:

  • Assign oxidation numbers to all elements

  • Determine if any changes in oxidation number has occurred

  • Redox Reaction - The simultaneous increase and decrease of electrons in a reaction

• To write a half reaction, write the reaction as either:

  • An element, which decomposes into an ion and electrons

  • An ion and electrons, which produce an element

• To find the transfer of electrons:

  • Multiply the oxidation number on both sides by any applicable coefficients and subscripts

  • Compare the total amount of electrons on the reactant and product side

  • The total amount of electrons gained by the reduced products should equal the total amount lost by the oxidized product

Lesson 5 - Nuclear Reactions

• Larger atoms tend to be more unstable

  • The more unstable the element, the less time it can remain present for

• Radioisotope - Isotopes of an element that are radioactive

• Radioactive - When an element gives off high energy particles and rays, such as alpha, beta, and gamma

• Alpha Decay - The least damaging form of radioactive decay, in which helium-4 particles are emitted, and the atomic number and mass are changed

  • ^m_pX → ⁴₂He + ^m-4_p-2Y

• Beta Decay - The form of radioactive decay in which high speed electrons are released from the nucleus, which converts neutrons into a proton, and where only the atomic number changes

  • ^m_pX → ⁰_-1β + ^m_p+1Y

• Gamma Decay - The most damaging form of radioactive decay, in which high energy photons are emitted, but the atomic number or mass is unchanged

  • ^m_pX → ⁰₀γ + ^m_pY

• For decay, the total mass and atomic number on both sides should be equal

• There are two types of nuclear reaction

  • Fusion - The nuclear reaction where two lighter, unstable nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable one, and energy is released

    • element + element → element with greater mass + positrons

    • element + element → element with greater mass and atomic number

    • element + element → element with greater mass + proton

  • Fission - An unstable, heavier nucleus is split into lighter, more stable ones, and energy is released

    • element + neutron → smaller element + smaller element + neutrons

• Half Life - The time it takes for half of any given quantity of a substance to react

  • The shorter the half life, the faster the decay

  • To find the linear curve of half life, use:

    • ln(N_t/N₀) = -kt, where:

      • N_t = number remaining

      • N₀ = initial number

      • k = decay constant

      • t = time interval

  • To find the half life, use:

    • A_t = A_o(1/2)^t/t_1/2, where:

      • A_t = mass at given time “t”

      • A_o = original mass

      • t = given time

      • t_1/2 = the half life, in the same units as t

    • Use logarithms to solve for any of the exponents

      • b^y=x, and log_bx = y

      • log_bx = (log x)/(log b)

    • If the mass at the given time is a percent, multiply the original mass (possibly as a variable) by the remaining percent

      • Ex. If A_o is 40% decayed, then A_t = A_o(0.60)

      • Ex. If 40% of A_o remains, then A_t = A_o(0.40)