political participation study guide

amicus curiae briefs- A document filed by Interest groups that write these to the supreme court to support their side. They try to persuade the court to agree with the arguments set forth in the brief. 

agenda setting- Plans for the government. Three ways the government can share their plans is through traditional news media, new communication technologies, and advances in social media. 

attack ads- Attack ads were allowed to be created by PAC about presidential candidates which often mislead people. This became a major issue in the 2000 election because it was out of control and later led to the BCRA in 2002. 

absentee voting- If you cannot be there for voting they can give you an absentee ballot which you can do for 6 weeks at home. This is not allowed everywhere in the U.S.  

BCRA 2002- Bipartisan campaign finance reform act, raised the individual donation limit to $2,000, adjusted for inflation every election, ($3,300 for the 2024 election). BCRA banned soft money.. 60 days before the election. Many people who donated complained about this act. “Stand by your ad” provision to reduce attack ads. (Obama ad of him saying in the beginning of the video “I am Barack Obama and I approve this message”. 

Baker v Carr (1962)-  A case in Tennessee about how redistricting was unequal, Baker wanted to redraw the districts so that there was a fair amount of representation. However, the legislatures did not have the incentive to change. In result, the federal courts said they wouldn’t involve themselves in redistricting cases because they didn't have the power. This case was argued twice, and came about justiciable. How the courts can hear them, led to a flood of new cases about redistricting.

closed primaries- Only vote for your party; voters who are registered for the party which is holding the primary vote. California used to be this but now it is an open primary.  

Caucuses- Around 10 states in the U.S do this, Iowa is the main one that votes like this. Democrats meet with democrats and republicans meet with republicans. Democrats play “4 corners” and each group with 15% of vote gets to be viable. Democrats voting can last for about 3 hours. While republicans just hear their speech and write down their vote, which is less time consuming then the way democrats vote. Whoever wins has a higher chance of winning.  

coattail effect- Popular candidate to attract votes for other candidates in their party during elections. Popular presidents win, other candidates from the same party may also win because they are on the same “team”.  

credible source- A source that is reliable and trustworthy, typically offering accurate, well researched and unbiased information.  

 professional campaign consultants- Professionals are hired to do all the needed items for a campaign. Modern Campaigns spend a large amount of money on services to get the job done right. The professionals that are hired are trained and paid to complete the job, big money buys the best campaign consultants.  

Citizens United v FEC (2010)- A group called Citizens United wanted to air a documentary about Hilary Clinton during the 2008 election. The FEC argues that this broke campaign finance laws, but citizens said it violates freedom of speech. Overall, the court decided to allow unlimited spending on political campaigns, which led to the rise of Super PACs that can spend as much money as they want to help influence elections.

candidate-centered campaigns- We now vote for unique people like Trump and Obama. Candidates that standout not just loyal party members. Reduces the role of the party. 

critical elections- Major national election that signals a change in the balance of power between democratic and republican party. The 1860 election was the main official critical election.  

campaign finance law- Put a limit on direct donations. Laws that regulate how much money can be donated to political campaigns and how that money can be spent. To ensure that contributions to political campaigns comply with legal limits.  

Demographics- The amount of people that live in an area with a variety of characteristics like race, age, religion, gender, and ethnicity. 

Electoral College- Each state holds a popular election. Then the winner of the election in each state, gets the entire number of electoral college votes for that state (winner-take-all). The first candidate to 270 of 538 possible.   

early voting- Casting a ballot before Election Day. Usually available for several days or weeks. Voters in some states are allowed to do early voting in person, making it easier for those with tight schedules like work.  

faithless elector- An electoral college member who doesn’t vote for the candidate they were pledged to support.  

Federal Election Commission- The federal election campaign act created the federal election commission in 1974. The FEC would be the bureaucracy to enforce campaign finance laws. 

Free-riders- Makes a group less successful. You get the benefits even though you did not have to work for it. Consumer groups and environmental groups. Can also encourages move member to join.

free speech- Having the privilege to say anything you want in the media. Something necessary to choose leaders in a democracy. It is vital to being able to cast an informed vote! 

Gatekeeper- A media role where journalists or outlets control which information or stories are spread out to the public. For example, news outlets like CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC that decide which stories make it to the front page like the result of the 2025 elections, which help shape the public's perception on politics and inform them. 

general election- A nationwide/state-level election where voters select a candidate to hold public office. In general elections voters can cast their ballots for candidates running for president, governor, or congress.   

gender gap- A term that refers to American women who are more likely to identify with and vote for Democratic party candidates; other than men who will most likely vote for Republican party candidates. Gender gap was seen in the 2016 election where more women voted for Hilary Clinton than Donald Trump. 

hard money- Direct donations, disclosure of all expenditures and donations. There are limits to hard money established by the Federal election campaign act 1974. Example of this is if a person donates $2,000 to a candidate’s re-election campaign because they favor their party, this is an example of hard money because they want their candidate to win. 

horse race coverage- Based more on popularity and factors other than qualifications and platforms of candidates. Coverage of political campaigns that focuses on polling and the drama of the campaign rather than on policy issues. Media outlets focus on which candidate is leading in the polls, rather than talking about their policy platform.

issue networks- Influence between interest groups, policymakers, and policy advocates. An example of an issue network is environmentalists, as they form an issue network to address climate change policies. 

Incumbent- An experienced candidate/officeholder. If there is a new candidate running for office against an incumbent, it will be difficult and the chances of winning is low because incumbents have an advantage over new challengers. 

incumbency advantage- Benefits the current officeholders have over newcomers in elections, making it easier for them to win. They have the benefits because people who recognize them will vote for them because they are reliable and will listen to what the people who support them have to say. Compared to new candidates they are not as reliable because voters won’t know whether or not they are true to their words and will follow out their plans. 

interest groups- A group that represents specific or general interests. Interest groups do not run a slate of candidates (NRA).

iron triangles- Congressional committees, bureaucracies, interest groups. Examples of these groups are AARP, NRA, and NAACP.  

 investigative journalism- News that keeps you hooked in because of the possible theories. Examples are watergate, muckrakers, and fires if they were on purpose or not. 

linkage institutions- Channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policymakers. Elections, political parties, media, interest groups. Links citizens to government.

Lobbying- Talk to lawmakers, convince them to further the group's interest. Provide a strategy to get legislation passed. Mobilize members to call/email elected representatives and post on social media. Gains lots of attention and is inexpensive. 

midterm elections- Elections held in the middle of a presidential term, where voters can re-elect members of congress and other offices. Midterm elections show whether or not the current president is doing bad or good, and it also gives the other political party a say. 

news events- Planned and scripted news. For example, Trump signing executive orders is a planned news event for people to see in the media.

open primaries- Allowed to vote for either party, does not have to follow the same political party that you are originally registered for. California does this. 

Platform- A platform is a formal set of principles and goals that outlines a political party’s positions on various issues, serving as a guide. They often outline the goals to appeal to voters and to gain supporters.  

prospective voting- Individuals who vote based on predictions of how  apathy or candidate will perform in the future. 

Primaries- Some states hold primaries, around 40 states. Primaries are open or closed, whether or not you can vote for your own party or you can vote for either party. Whichever candidate wins in a state has an excellent chance of winning the nomination. 

political contributions- Donations made to political candidates and parties to support their campaigns. A wealthy individual who donates a large amount of money to a candidate's re-election funds is an example as they benefit the candidate that they want to win.  

political efficacy- A person's belief that he or she can make effective political change. Someone with high political efficacy believes their vote can influence the outcome of an election. 

political action committee (PAC)- Organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns. A PAC supporting a healthcare reform can donate funds to candidates who advocate towards that reform in order for it to be passed.   

political party- A team of men and women seeking to control the government apparatus by gaining office in a duty constituted election. Democrats and republicans. 

presidential elections- Elections in which voters can select who they want to represent our country and take responsibility for.

protest movements- Protest movements are organized by citizens to express the need for political and social change. An example is the civil rights movement in the 1960s as it was a protest movement advocating for racial equality and justice.  

political realignments- Shifts in party alliances, often affected due to critical election, leading to changes in the political landscape. The New Deal is an example as it changes voters minds, with many working class and minority groups supporting the Democratic party while being against the Republican party.  

party conventions- Meetings that political parties formally nominate their candidates for President and Vice President and develop their platforms. The Democratic national convention in 2016, Hilary Clinton was formally nominated as the party’s candidate for President.  

political commentary- Opinions on political events, policies, and candidates. Often delivered by experts. A political analyst provides commentary on the latest debates between the presidential candidates.  

retrospective voting- Individuals who decide whether the party or candidate in power should be reelected based on the recent past. 

rational choice voting- Individuals who base their decisions on what is perceived to be in their best interest.  

safe seat- A legislative district where only one political party has a strong and reliable majority, making it unlikely for the other party to win.  

sound bites- A short memorable statement made by politicians. During speeches or interviews it is used. An example of a sound bite is Howard Dean, and his scream during his speech was memorable for the whole country during that time. Unfortunately, his embarrassing sound bite led to him dropping out of the election. 

straight ticket voting- Individuals who vote for all of the candidates from one political party on a ballot. Example, if you are registered for the Republican party all of your other votes for the other candidates follow your registered party.

soft money- “indirect donations” freedom of speech and are legal. Campaigning at the local level, voter drives, voter registration. The negative aspect of soft money is that it can have negative ads/issue ads which became a problem but still legal. There are no limits to soft money.  

structural barriers to voting- Differences in state controlled elections. Polling hours, absentee ballots (not allowed everywhere), mail-in ballots, early voting (in some states), voter ID laws to show who you say you are (CA does not require this), funding for polls and workers which is important to places that have a lot of people. 

selective benefits- Benefits available only to those who join the group. Interest groups often use this to encourage memberships. An example is a union offering health benefits only to its members as a selective benefit for joining. Another example is if you join the NRA you have the benefit to get a license for your gun and to be able to use it in hunting grounds.  

single issue groups- Groups focusing on a singular specific area of public policy. The national right of life committee is a single issue group focusing on opposing abortion.  

social movements- Large groups of citizens organizing for political change. Examples of this is the anti-war protest which was basically groups of young men and those against violence protesting to stop the war in Vietnam, take troops out of Vietnam, and to stop drafting young men.  

social media- The means of communication. A role of money in campaigns, many people want things from the government and are all too willing to give big money. Social media is a key factor for fundraising.  

Stand By Your Ad provision- A requirement that political candidates must explicitly state in ads to approve of the content. An example of this is when there was a political ad about the 2018 election and there was a video about Trump. In the beginning before the video explained the content there was a portion of Obama’s voice saying “I am Obama and I approve of this message”.

swing state- A state where it has an equal level of support for Democrat and Republicans, swinging back and forth between the two. Most candidates campaign in these states as they prioritize them because they can help increase their chance of winning. 

third parties- No chance at winning the presidency due to winner-take-all aspect of the Electoral college. But if the issues they support are popular enough, those issues will make their way to a major platform. Examples are free college, debt reduction, and other green policies…

two-party system- Madison warned against factions in Federalist paper 10. Washington also warned about factions. The winner-take-all aspect of the electoral college created the two party system. Only an established party would have a chance at receiving electoral college votes. 

voter turnout- Who are the people voting? 

voter ID laws- Before you vote at a voting station you have to show your identification to show who you say you are to prevent identity fraud and to make sure you are a citizen of the state. Not all states do this because of structural barriers. 

voting by mail- Turning in your ballot through the mail as it can be easier for some people to access. 

voter registration- There are different variations in voter registration which are in-person, online, and automatically. 

voter behavior/choice- How people vote for who they vote for, including factors like party affiliation, demographics, and issues. Economic conditions influence voter behavior such as voting for candidates advocating for tax cuts during a recession.  

voter mobilization- Efforts made to encourage an increase voter participation in elections, political campaigns often use door to door and text messaging tactics to mobilize voters.  

winner take all voting districts-  

winner take all system- The winner of the election in each state, gets the entire number of electoral college votes for that state. Each state holds a popular election then the winner of the election in each state gets the electoral college. 

war chest- A large amount of funds by a candidate or political party to help finance a campaign. Incumbent senators have a significant War Chest as they have been donated money previously, enabling them to run an re-election campaign. 

Watchdog- Often filled by the media that monitors and reports on government and corporate activities to ensure that their information is credible/accountable and transparent. For example, journalists are watchdogs as they uncover government corruption and misconduct.

14th amendment- Guarantees equal rights and citizenship to all the people who were born in the United States. 

15th amendment-  Ratified in 1870, Suffrage for African American men.

17th amendment- Ratified in 1913. Popular election of senators as they used to be appointed by the state legislatures before, but now they are decided by the people. When they were appointed there was more say in government.

19th amendment- Ratified in 1920. Women’s suffrage. Doubled the population vote.

24th amendment- Ratified in 1965. Abolition of poll taxes, abolished paying money the right to vote.  

26th amendment- Ratified in 1971. Right to vote for 18-20 year olds.