Exam

-Section; implies actual cut or slice to reveal internal anatomy

-Plane; implies an imaginary flat surface passing through the body

-Sagittal- divides body into left and right regions.

-(median) Midsagittal plane divides body or organ into equal halves

-Frontal (coronal) plane divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

-Transverse (horizonal) plane divides body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

-Anterior front of ex; hallux is anterior to the calcaneal

-Posterior back of ex; sacral is posterior to the pelvic

-Superficial top layer above ex; abdominal muscles are superficial to the intestines

-Deep self-explanatory. ex; lungs are deeper than the mammary

-Medial middle; toward the center; ex; the umbilical is medial to the antebrachial

-Lateral to the side or away from the middle of the body. Ex; axillary is lateral to mammary

-Ventral front (anterior) of the body ex; nose, eyes, lips

-Dorsal the backside of the body ex; lumbar, sacral, gluteal

-Proximal nearer to the trunk (center) of the body. Ex; coxal is proximal to the femoral

-Distal located away from a specific area of the body ex; palmar is distal to the axillary

-Superior above a specific area of the body ex; antecubital is superior to the carpal

-Inferior below a specific area of the body. Ex; pubic is inferior to the umbilical.

Body cavities

Cranial- Holds the brain and it’s lined with meninges

Vertebral canal holds the spinal cord and its lined with meninges

Mediastinum - region between lungs; heart, major blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, & thymus

Thoracic cavity holds the heart, lungs, esophagus, trachea and thymus

Abdominopelvic cavity contains the reproductive organs and stomach, intestines, bladder, kidneys, spleen, gallbladder, pancreas, and appendix.

Body regions and 4 quadrant of the abdominal cavity (what organs are located in each regions & quadrant)

-Right upper quadrant; the liver, the gallbladder, duodenum, the upper portion of the pancreas, and the hepatic flexure of the colon

-Left upper quadrant; left portion of the liver, the larger portion of the stomach, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the transverse and descending colon, and parts of the small intestine.

-Right lower quadrant; small intestine, cecum, appendix, large intestine, right ureter, right ovary and fallopian tube (in females), right spermatic cord (in males)

-Left lower quadrant; the majority of the small intestine, some of the large intestine, the left female reproductive organs, and the left ureter.

Axial Region = head, neck, trunk ; thoracic region is the trunk above diaphragm.

Abdominal region is the trunk below the diaphragm.

Axiel region is divided into quadrants. Divided into 9 regions by a tic-tac-toe grid.

Appendicular region = upper and lower limbs.

Upper limb; brachial (arm), antebrachial (forearm), carpal (wrist), manual (hand), digits (fingers).

Lower limb; femoral (thigh), crural (leg), tarsal (ankle), pedal (foot), digits (toes).

-Hypochondriac region; liver (right lobe), gallbladder, hepatic duct, and right colic angle.

-Epigastric region; stomach, liver, pancreas, duodenum, adrenal glands

-Hypogastric region; small intestine, bladder and the uterus.

-Lumbar region; It consists of five bones (L1-L5). Other structures in or around your lumbar spine are your intervertebral disks, spinal cord and nerves, muscles, tendons and ligaments.

-Inguinal Region; there are two inguinal regions on each side of the abdomen: left and right. The left inguinal region contains part of the small intestine, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon and, in females, the left ovary and the left fallopian tube.

CHAPTER 1 Overview of anatomy & physiology

Anatomy- the study of form by examining the structure of the body in which its palpated and inspected, dissecting a cadaver so you can separate tissues to identify the relationships between tissues, and therefore the study of more than one species to compare the two by examining the differences and similarities.

To continue; we do this by

Medical imaging – viewing the inside of the body without surgery

Gross Anatomy– study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Cytology– study of structure and function of cells

Histology (microscopic anatomy) – examination of cells with microscope

Ultrastructure– the molecular detail seen in electron microscope

Histopathology– microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease.

Principle of complementarity

-Organism is composed of organ systems; a single person

-Organ Systems composed of organs ; human body’s 11 organ systems.

- Organs composed of tissues; structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function. Your organs and how they work together to do something that your body needs it to do so you can survive.

-Tissues composed of cells; a whole bunch of cells that form regions of an organ.

-Cells composed of organelles; the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life.

-Organelles composed of molecules; microscopic structures in a cell.

-Molecules composed of atoms ; smallest particles with unique identities.

11 organ system; Run Mrs Lidec

Respiratory System- input and output

Urinary system- input and output

Nervous system- internal communications

Muscular System-movement

Reproduction system- reproduction

Skeletal System- Support

Lymphatic System- fluid transport

Immune System- defense

Digestive System- input and output

Endocrine System- integration

Circulatory System- fluid transport

Integumentary System; protection

Physiology- the study of function, the study of how

Subdisciplines; neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system).

endocrinology (physiology of hormones). pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)

Comparative Physiology; limitations on human experimentation. study of different species to learn about bodily function by using animals. basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures.

Characteristics of life

Organization,

Cellular composition

Metabolism (anabolism, catabolism and excretion),

Responsiveness and movement (stimuli),

Homeostasis,

Development (differentiation and growth),

Reproduction, Evolution.

Homeostasis–the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions.

More on homeostasis. It’s the equal set point where the body fluctuations are normal. Ex; body temp at 97-99 degrees.

Negative feedback- body senses a change and activates responses to reverse it. Ex; Body is coldvessels constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins.

Fun fact; your body pulls heat from extremities to trunk/midline to warm body. If to warm, your vessels begin to vasodilate, and the sweating happens.

Positive feedback- Self-amplifying cycle. leads to greater change in the same direction, feedback loop is repeated, change produces more change. Ex; pushing a baby out of your vagina. Head of baby pushes against cervix, pain receptors are transmitted to your brain, brain stimulates your pituitary gland to give you oxytocin, the oxytocin tells your uterus to contract and push.

Anatomical Variation; No two humans are exactly alike; 70% most common structure, 30% anatomically variant,

variable number of organs- missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries ex; variation in organ locations.

situs solitus (normal positioning of the thoracic and abdominal organs),

situs inversus (organs inside the thoracic and abdominal organs are reversed),

dextrocardia (heart is positioned in the right side of the chest),

situs perversus (a single organ occupies an atypical position (malpositioned))

Futhermore; there are also physical variations such as sex, diet, weight, physical activity.

Evolution; change in genetic composition of population of organisms. Ex; development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics and appearance of new strains of AIDS virus.

Natural Selection; some individuals within a species have hereditary advantage over their competitors. Ex: better camo, disease resistant, ability to attract mates. Then these animals produce more offspring and its passed onto them. Selection pressure; natural forces that force the animal to survive more than others.

Adaptations; features of an organism’s anatomy, physiology, or behavior that have evolved in response to these selection pressures and enable the animal to cope with the challenges of its environment.

Medical imaging (just the ones covered in class)

Radiography (Xrays),

Computed Tomography (CT scans), formally known as cat scan. Low intensity xrays and computer analysis.

Magnetic Resonance Imagining (MRI), best for soft tissue, alignment and realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field & radio waves

Sonography, used in obgyn, not sharp, high frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs.

CHAPTER 3

Modern Cell theory

-All organisms composed of cells and cell products.

-Cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life. – cells are alive

-An organism’s structure and functions are due to the activities of its cells.

-Cells come only from preexisting cells, not from nonliving matter. therefore, all life traces its ancestry to the same original cells

-Cells of all species have many fundamental similarities in their chemical composition and metabolic mechanisms.

All cell structures and functions.

Squamous- thin and flat with nucleus creating bulge; diffusion and filtration, lines the esophagus and covers the skin

Cuboidal- squarish and about as tall as they are wide; secretion and absorption; can be found in the liver.

Columnar - taller than wide; absorption & secretion of mucus enzymes, found in the intestines

Polygonal - irregularly angular shapes with 4 or more sides

Stellate – starlike shape, nerve cells

Spheroid to Ovoid – round to oval, fat cells

Discoid - disc-shaped, red blood cells

Fusiform - thick in middle, tapered toward the ends, smooth muscle cells, smooth muscles have these due to their stretching capability

Fibrous – threadlike shape, found in skeletal muscles

Plasma membrane (Make sure you know the Fluid-Mosaic Model- picture below)

Plasma membrane; surrounds cell, made of proteins and lipids, composition and function can vary from one region of the cell to another

-Passive Transport; Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low

concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient

-diffusion; Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration to reach equilibrium

-facilitated diffusion; Another type of passive transport, used for molecules that cannot diffuse through cell membranes usually because of their shape and/or size.

-carrier proteins; Proteins that change shape to allow a substance to pass through the plasma membrane

-osmosis; Diffusion of water across a membrane

-hydrostatic pressure; Pressure exerted by a volume of fluid against a surrounding structure which resists volume change

-Active Transport; Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

-Symport; translocates 2 different solutes simultaneously in the SAME direction.

-Antiport; exchanges 2 solutes by transporting in OPPOSITE direction

-vesicular transport; Uses vesicles or other cytoplasmic bodies to move macromolecules or other large particles across the plasma membrane.

-Endocytosis; the capture of a substance outside the cell when the plasma membrane merges to engulf it. The substance then enters the cytoplasm enclosed inside a vesicle.

-Exocytosis; the process by which wastes are packaged in vesicles and release their contents outside the cell.

- Role of membrane receptors; Membrane receptors transmit information about extracellular stimuli into the cytoplasm.