Introduction to China-HISTORY（1-20）

CHAPTER 2: History

Overview of Ancient Civilizations

Among the world's major ancient civilizations, only Chinese civilization continues today, while Babylonian, Egyptian, and Indian civilizations have largely faded from history. China's relevance today is immense, as it holds one-fifth of the world's population and has a rapidly growing economy. To comprehend contemporary China, understanding its rich and intricate history is essential.

I. Ancient Chinese History

1. The Yellow Emperor and the Formation of the Chinese Nation

The Chinese refer to themselves as "Descendants of Yan and Huang," which ties back to the legendary figures, Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor) and Yandi, who symbolize the origins of Chinese civilization. Huangdi and Yandi were two tribes in ancient China that were close allies residing in the northwest. The Jiuli tribe, led by the fierce warrior Chiyou, challenged their dominance, leading to significant conflicts. An iconic event, the "Zhuolu Battle," saw the Yan tribes unite against Jiuli and ultimately secure victory, allowing them to occupy the fertile Central Plains. Through subsequent alliances and conflicts, Huangdi emerged as the leader of this tribal coalition, integrating various tribes and laying the groundwork for what would become the Huaxia (Chinese) nationality. Successors of Huangdi, such as the emperors of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, frequently claimed lineage from him, further solidifying his legendary status in Chinese culture.

2. Qin Shihuang and China's Unification

During the Warring States Period, multiple states, notably Qin, Zhao, and Han, vied for power amidst continuous warfare. Qin emerged as the most powerful state due to critical reforms in governance and military innovations. In 221 BC, Qin Shihuang achieved the monumental feat of unifying China after defeating rival states, thereby becoming the first emperor of a centralized and unified China. He established a structured government with the Prime Minister acting as his chief adviser and implemented a series of sweeping reforms, including a unified legal system, standardized measurement units, and currency to foster economic growth. However, Qin Shihuang's reign was also characterized by extreme measures of censorship and punishment to enforce loyalty and ideological unity, including the infamous burning of books and live burials of dissenting scholars. His ambitious construction projects included the initial phases of the Great Wall to protect against northern incursions and expansive territorial conquests to secure China's borders. The legacy of Qin Shihuang is noteworthy; the name "Qin" evolved into various designations for China in different cultures, illustrating its lasting impact on both history and nomenclature.

3. Han Wudi and the Silk Road

The Han Dynasty, divided into Western (206 BC - 25 AD) and Eastern Han (25 - 220 AD), is well-remembered for its era of stability and prosperity. One of its most illustrious emperors, Liu Che, known as Han Wudi, reigned from 141 to 87 BC and significantly expanded the empire's influence through military and diplomatic campaigns. His military initiatives against the nomadic Huns not only secured frontier territories but also opened vital trade routes to Central Asia, establishing diplomatic relationships and agreements that culminated in the creation of the legendary Silk Road. This trade route facilitated extensive cultural and economic exchanges between China and far-reaching areas, including the Roman Empire, enabling the spread of goods, technology, and ideas that shaped civilizations along the route.

4. Tang Xuanzong and the Kaiyuan Age of Prosperity

The Tang Dynasty (618-907) heralded a period of unprecedented cultural exchange and prosperity after its reunification of China. Notably, during the reigns of Emperors Taizong and Xuanzong, Chang’an emerged as a vibrant epicenter for international trade, hosting envoys and merchants from over 200 nations. The Tang Dynasty's influence extended far beyond its borders, fostering international prestige as evidenced by numerous historical records detailing extensive trade routes and cultural interactions, thereby firmly establishing China as a global leader in the arts, commerce, and culture.

5. Song Taizu and Economic Advancement

Following the Tang Dynasty, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) is celebrated for its remarkable economic prosperity characterized by advances in technology and banking systems. It laid the groundwork for various innovations and urban trade practices that prospered during this period. The standardization of currency and trade laws significantly enhanced commercial ventures, while the dynasty’s exquisite porcelain became internationally acclaimed, effectively establishing China as a powerhouse in global trade. The cultural advancements included advancements in literature, philosophy, and the sciences, reflecting a thriving intellectual climate.

6. Yuan Shizu and Expansion

The Yuan Dynasty, established by the Mongolian leader Kublai Khan, marked a new era of unification for China after centuries of fragmentation. Kublai Khan's policies emphasized governance and the integration of Han culture into the Mongol rule, which led to significant developments in trade and a unique cultural synthesis. Despite underlying ethnic tensions and challenges related to social cohesion, the Yuan Dynasty facilitated greater connectivity within its expansive territories.

7. Ming Chengzu and Zheng He's Voyages

During the Ming Dynasty, the renowned diplomat and explorer Zheng He undertook seven significant maritime expeditions between 1405 and 1433. His journeys expanded China's influence across Southeast Asia and beyond, firmly establishing trade links and diplomatic ties with foreign nations. Zheng He's voyages showcased China's impressive maritime capabilities and enriched cultural exchange, despite being largely curtailed after his death due to the Ming Dynasty's subsequent inward focus.

8. Qing Gaozong and the Prosperity of Kangxi and Qianlong

The Qing Dynasty reached its zenith under the enlightened rule of Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong. This period was marked by territorial expansion, stability in governance, and flourishing cultural development, with a notable increase in agricultural output and trade prosperity that further enhanced China's economic stature on a global scale. Both emperors emphasized cultural patronage, resulting in remarkable contributions to literature and the arts.

II. Modern Chinese History

1. The Opium Wars

The late 18th and early 19th centuries ushered in a tumultuous period for China with the influx of British opium, which had devastating effects on Chinese society, including widespread addiction and economic distress. The Qing government’s attempts to ban the drug led to the First Opium War (1839-1842). This conflict, driven by British interests in the opium trade, culminated in China's defeat and resulted in the Treaty of Nanjing, which imposed severe terms that compromised China's sovereignty and opened several ports to foreign trade, marking the beginning of a century of humiliation for China.

2. The Revolution of 1911

The revolutionary efforts led by Sun Yat-sen challenged the Qing Dynasty, ultimately resulting in its overthrow in 1911, which transitioned China from imperial rule to a republican government. Although this movement initially sparked hope for unification and modernization, subsequent challenges arose with the fragmentation of authority among warlords, leading to political instability and unrest that plagued the nation for decades.

3. The Birth of the Communist Party of China

In response to the turbulence of the early 20th century, the Communist Party of China was founded in 1921, influenced by global socialist movements and the ideologies articulated during the May Fourth Movement. The party sought to address the social and economic issues faced by the Chinese populace, eventually evolving into a central political force that decisively led to the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 after years of civil conflict.

4. The War of Resistance Against Japan

Japan's aggression against China peaked during the late 1930s, particularly following the September 18th Incident that marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War, a major conflict that contributed to the broader scope of World War II. China's eventual victory in 1945 not only marked a pivotal moment in the War but also significantly shaped national sentiment, solidifying unity against the foreign aggression and igniting a resurgence of patriotism across the nation.

5. The War of Liberation

In the wake of World War II, a fierce struggle re-emerged between the Nationalist Kuomintang and the Communist Party, leading to the War of Liberation. This civil conflict culminated in the Communist Party's victory in 1949, resulting in the proclamation of the People's Republic of China and the establishment of a new political order that sought to transform Chinese society fundamentally.

III. Contemporary Chinese History

1. The Founding of the People's Republic of China

The formal announcement of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, marked the culmination of a prolonged struggle against colonialism and feudalism, signifying a fresh start for the Chinese populace. This new government aimed to empower citizens, removing foreign invaders' influence and embarking on a transformative sociopolitical journey that sought to redefine the nation’s identity and global standing.