APUSH 4-5

Six Things to Know about Period 4:

1. The United States continued to develop its own democratic ideals, sparking

debates about role of federal government, and leading to the formation of various

political parties.

2. The U.S. Supreme Court established the principle that federal laws take

precedence over state laws. Through Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Court also

established the principle of judicial review, which allowed courts to check the

power of the legislature and executive branches of government, further

solidifying a “separation of powers.”

3. America developed a national culture, especially after the War of 1812, and

various religious and social reform groups emerged. The temperance movement

sought to ban alcohol. The abolition movement worked to end slavery and to

assist African Americans. The women’s rights movement’s efforts culminated in

the Seneca Falls Convention.

4. America underwent an economic and technological revolution. Major

developments included the cotton gin, the steam engine, the factory system, and

the expansion of railroads and canals. America moved away from a small

subsistence-based economy and into an era of increasing industrialization, which

impacted societal and family structures.

5. Expanding westward after the Louisiana Purchase, the United States sought to

expand its borders and to be seen as a major player in foreign trade. The Monroe

Doctrine and military actions against American Indian tribes demonstrated the

desire for more control in North America.

6. As new states joined the United States, the debate over slavery raged on. In an

attempt to appease both the North and South, Henry Clay crafted the Missouri

Compromise, resolving some tension for the next three decades.

The Election of Thomas Jefferson

● Federalists: Supported an orderly, efficient central government that could

protect their economic status; these well-organized leaders often wielded

significant political control. Members included George Washington, Benjamin

Franklin, and Alexander Hamilton. An early political party. See: Anti-Federalists,

Alien and Sedition Acts.

● Thomas Jefferson: Third President. Served 1801–1809. Authored the

Declaration of the Independence. He led the U.S. through the Tripolitanian War

and avoided involvement in the Napoleonic Wars. In some cases, Jefferson

adhered to the letter of the Constitution, while at other times (such as with the

Louisiana Purchase) he adopted a loose interpretation. For example, he kept

many of the hallmarks of the Federalist Era intact (such as Hamilton’s economic

system), but he had the citizenship requirement of the Alien Act reduced to five

years and abolished the excise tax.

● Electoral College: A name for the group of electors that decides who the

president and vice-president will be. Whichever candidate receives the majority

of electoral votes wins. If no candidate receives a majority, the presidential

election is thrown to the House. The Senate elects the vice president. It is possible

to win the electoral college but lose the popular vote; this scenario has happened

on five occasions: 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016. The Electoral College was

modified by the Twelfth Amendment.

● Democratic-Republicans: One of the first political parties in the United

States. They opposed the Federalist Party. They supported states’ rights and

favored agrarianism. Members included Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, and

Aaron Burr. Following the party’s fragmentation during the Era of Good Feelings,

a faction led by Andrew Jackson became dominant. That faction formed the

Democratic Party, which still exists. See: Anti-Federalist.

● Aaron Burr: Third Vice President (1801–1805). Served during Thomas

Jefferson’s first term. Famously killed Alexander Hamilton in an 1804 duel. Tried

but acquitted on charges of treason in 1807 over allegations he conspired with

foreign agents to overthrow Spanish rule in what became the American

Southwest, in order to establish a new nation with himself as ruler.

● Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father and co-author of the Federalist Papers.

Split the Federalist ticket in the Election of 1800, weakening then-President John

Adams enough to allow Thomas Jefferson to win. In an 1804 duel, he was shot

and killed by Vice President Aaron Burr.

● Louisiana Territory: In 1803, Jefferson offered France $10 million for New

Orleans and a strip of land that extended to Florida. However, Napoleon had

abandoned his dream of an American empire because of his failure to stop a slave

uprising in Haiti; he instead prioritized raising revenue to fund his conquest of

Europe. He offered the entire Louisiana Territory, which stretched from the Gulf

of Mexico to the Hudson Bay, and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky

Mountains, for the bargain price of $15 million. Jefferson, while torn over the fact

that the Constitution did not specifically provide for the president to negotiate for

and purchase land from a foreign power, reluctantly accepted the proposal in

order to safeguard national security.

● Pinckney’s Treaty: The United States had enjoyed the right of deposit at the

Port of New Orleans under this 1795 treaty with Spain, but in 1798 the Spanish

revoked the treaty.

● Napoleon Bonaparte: A famous French military and political leader, both

during the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars. He led France

as Emperor Napoleon I from 1804 until 1814. His various military conquests led

to the spread of legal reform, republicanism, nationalism, and other ideas of the

French Revolution. In American history, he is notable for his involvement in the

Louisiana Purchase, as he sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

● James Monroe: Fifth President. Served 1817–1825. A Virginian and

Democratic-Republican, he helped secure the Louisiana Purchase. During the

War of 1812, he served as both Secretary of State (1811–1817) and Secretary of

War (1814–1815). The Era of Good Feelings largely overlaps with his presidency.

He dealt with the Panic of 1819 and well as the Missouri Compromise. In 1823, he

issued the Monroe Doctrine, a long-lasting foreign policy of the United States.

● Robert Livingston: Along with James Monroe, he was dispatched to France in

1803 to offer $10 million for New Orleans and a strip of land that extended to

Florida. If the negotiations failed, Monroe and Livingston were to travel directly

to London to ask for a transatlantic alliance between the United States and

Britain. Much to the surprise of both men, the French ministers were offering not

only the land Jefferson sought but the entire Louisiana Territory.

● Meriwether Lewis: One half of the famed Lewis and Clark team who explored

and charted the Louisiana Purchase. See: William Clark.

● William Clark: One half of the famed Lewis and Clark team who explored and

charted the Louisiana Purchase. See: Meriwether Lewis.

The Marshall Court

● Judiciary Act of 1801: In a last-minute piece of legislation before the Congress

was to be turned over to the majority Democratic-Republicans, the Federalists

created 16 new judgeships. President John Adams worked through the nights of

his last days in office, appointing so-called “midnight judges” who would serve on

the bench during Jefferson’s administration. Incensed by the packing of

Federalists into lifetime judicial appointments, Jefferson sought to keep these

men from taking the bench. This led to the Marbury v. Madison ruling.

● Midnight judges: Judges appointed at the very end of the Adams

administration under the Judiciary Act of 1801. So-called because they were an

attempt to pack the judicial branch with Federalist judges just before the

Democratic-Republicans took power.

● James Madison: Fourth President. Served 1809–1817. A Virginian and

Democratic-Republican, he served as Jefferson’s Secretary of State (1801–1809)

and help negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. He led the U.S. through the War of

1812. Due to the war’s difficulties, he shifted toward supporting a stronger

centralized state, a re-chartered national bank, and various internal

improvements. See: American System, Second Bank of the United States.

● William Marbury: One of the “midnight judges” appointed by John Adams.

Jefferson tried to stop his appointment. So, Marburg sued under the Judiciary

Act of 1789, which granted the Supreme Court the authority to enforce judicial

commissions. His case resulted in the landmark Marbury v. Madison decision.

● Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the structure of the Judiciary Branch, with

the Supreme Court consisting of one presiding chief justice and five associate

justices. It also provided for the establishment of 13 district courts and three

circuit courts of appeal. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Supreme Court: The highest court in the judicial branch. In the present day,

there are nine justices seated at it, with one of the nine serving as Chief Justice,

although this number fluctuated in the early years of the United States. The

president nominates a justice and the Senate votes on that nomination. If

confirmed, the justice has a lifetime appointment, serving until their death or

retirement. See: Judiciary Act of 1789, Marbury v. Madison

● John Marshall: Founding Father. The fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme

Court (1801–1835). Cemented the concept of judicial review, making the judicial

branch coequal to the executive and legislative. A Federalist, his rulings

reinforced the supremacy of federal law. See: Marbury v. Madison.

● Chief Justice: The highest judicial officer in the United States. When in the

majority of a ruling, the Chief Justice assigns the duty of who will write the

majority’s opinion. The Chief Justice also has sway over which cases the Supreme

Court will hear. By tradition, the Chief Justice administers the presidential oath

of office. See: Earl Warren, John Jay, John Marshall, Roger Taney, William

Howard Taft.

● Writ of mandamus: A court order to an inferior government official

compelling them to carry out their legally obligated duties. Important in the

reasoning of the Marbury v. Madison decision.

● Marbury v. Madison: 1803 ruling stated Congress cannot pass laws that are

contrary to the Constitution, and that it is the judicial system’s job to interpret

what the Constitution permits. Overturned a clause in the Judiciary Act of 1789

that granted the Supreme Court the power to command any subordinate

government authority to take or not take an action that is that authority’s legal

duty. See: judicial review, separation of powers, William Marbury.

● Impeachment: The process of a legislative body removing a government official

from their appointed office. Impeachment is often mistaken for being

successfully removed. In fact, it is merely the name for the overall process. Both

Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton were impeached but neither man was convicted

of the charges laid against them. See: Samuel Chase.

● Samuel Chase: A Supreme Court justice. Served 1796–1811. The House

impeached Chase owing to his highly Federalist partisan decisions. The Senate,

however, refused to remove him because of the absence of any evidence of “high

crimes and misdemeanors.” Thus, Jefferson’s attempt to push Federalist judges

out of the system was unsuccessful, as most remained on the bench for life. The

judges did tend to rule more to the president’s liking, however, once the threat of

impeachment hung heavily over the judicial system. Nevertheless, this episode

proved to be the last time that a Supreme Court justice would be impeached,

maintaining the precious separation of powers between the legislative and

judicial branches. See: midnight judges.

● Partisan: The supporter of a political figure or cause, to the point that it biases

their actions. See: Samuel Chase.

Jefferson’s Challenges

● Twelfth Amendment: Ratified in 1804, it called for electors to the Electoral

College to specify which ballot was being cast for the office of president and

which was being cast for the office of vice president. In other words, the president

and vice president were now elected as a unified ticket, rather than the vice

president being the runner-up. The tie vote that occurred in 1800 between

Jefferson and Burr would not happen again under this new amendment.

● Essex Junto: A group of radical Federalists plotting for a New England state

secession from the Union. They had originally asked Hamilton if he would run for

governor of New York to join in their exploits. Hamilton refused the offer, so the

group then asked Aaron Burr if he would run. Burr gladly accepted. Upon hearing

the news, Hamilton leaped at the chance to crush Burr’s chances of election by

leading the opposition faction. Wary of Burr for his association with the

Democratic-Republicans, Federalists in New York chose not to elect Aaron Burr

as governor. The plot then faded away, but the whole incident contributed to the

fatal Hamilton-Burr duel.

● John Randolph: Also known as John Randolph of Roanoke, he was Virginia

planter once counted among Jefferson’s supporters in the House. Randolph

opposed President Jefferson’s abandonment of his once staunch advocacy for

states’ rights, believing the man had essentially become a Federalist. In reaction,

Randolph founded the Quids.

● Quids: More formally known as the tertium quids (Latin for “a third

something”). They were a conservative wing of the Democratic-Republican party

that wished to restrict the role of the federal government. The Quids were

founded in 1805 by John Randolph. See: Yazoo land scandal.

● Yazoo land scandal: A real estate fraud case in Georgia during the mid-1790s.

The Quids stated that President Jefferson’s decision to pay companies restitution

for illegally obtained land in Georgia (the Yazoo land scandal) proved that he was

corrupt. This scandal led to a schism within the Democratic-Republican party

that continued to plague Jefferson in his second term.

● Tripolitan War: A conflict fought (1801–1805) between the U.S. Navy and

Mediterranean pirates based on the North African coast, with assistance by

Sweden. Also known as the First Barbary War. The war was instigated by Barbary

pirates attacking U.S. merchant vessels. The pirates held the crews for ransom

and demanded tribute.

● Napoleonic Wars: The umbrella term for seven major European conflicts

between 1803 and 1815, which spun out of the French Revolution and its various

wars. The French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte fought varying alliances of

European powers that aimed to roll back the nationalism and liberalism

unleashed by the French Revolution. The War of 1812 was a secondary theater in

North America to these wars. In the end, following a failed invasion of Russia,

Napoleon was defeated. The resulting Congress of Vienna redrew Europe’s

borders, established a conservative anti-nationalistic, pro-monarchy consensus

for several decades, and established the supremacy of the British Empire and the

Pax Britannica until World War I.

● USS Chesapeake: In 1807, the British ship Leopard fired upon the USS

Chesapeake, right off the coast of Virginia. The attack killed three Americans, and

the British then impressed four sailors from Chesapeake. Despite the war fever

taking hold in America, President Jefferson sought a diplomatic resolution via

economic sanctions. This led to the Embargo Act of 1807.

● Embargo Act of 1807: Passed in response to British and French harassment of

American shipping. However, this embargo mainly hurt the U.S. as neither

nation was dependent on U.S. trade. Repealed in 1809 and replaced with the

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809. The Embargo Act led to the Hartford Convention

and the weakening of the U.S. ahead of the War of 1812.

● Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: Replaced the unpopular Embargo Act of 1807.

This law allowed the United States to trade with foreign nations except Britain

and France. Like its predecessor, the Embargo Act, it was difficult to enforce and

mostly ineffective.

Madison and European Issues

● War hawks: ‘Hawk’ is nickname for pro-war activists. Pro-peace activist are

often termed doves. In the specific context of the early nineteenth century, it

refers to politicians like Henry Clay from Kentucky and John C. Calhoun from

South Carolina who insisted that the War of 1812 would finally clear Britain’s

influence from North America.

● Henry Clay: A statesman and orator from Kentucky, Clay was known as “The

Great Compromiser” for brokering multiple deals over nullification and slavery.

He was also a proponent of infrastructure development that he called the

American System. Clay notably ran for president on several occasions but never

won. See: Compromise of 1850, Great Triumvirate.

● John C. Calhoun: A South Carolina politician and member of the Great

Triumvirate. Calhoun was an ardent supporter of states’ rights, nullification, and

slavery. Calhoun, who had served as Andrew Jackson’s vice president, resigned

from that office to return to the Senate, where he felt he could better defend the

virtues of nullification. From his deathbed, Calhoun wrote fierce attacks upon the

proposed Compromise of 1850 and affirmed the right of secession.

● Battle of Tippecanoe: A battle that took place in the Indiana Territory on

November 7, 1811. American forces under the command of Governor William

Henry Harrison battled Tecumseh’s Confederacy, an American Indian force of

various tribes led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother “The

Prophet.” Harrison’s victory propelled him into the White House (briefly).

● William Henry Harrison: Ninth President. Served from March 4 to April 4,

1841, famously dying after 31 days in office. A hero of the War of 1812, specifically

the Battle of Tippecanoe, his lively campaign saw the Whigs cart model log cabins

to towns and distribute hard cider to boast of Harrison’s “poor” background. His

“Tippecanoe and Tyler, too” ticket easily defeated Van Buren in 1840. However,

he gave his Inaugural Address on a cold, rainy day and neglected to wear a warm

coat. He contracted pneumonia and died. See: John Tyler.

● Tecumseh and the Prophet: A pair of Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and the

Prophet, who led a large native confederacy organized in the face of an American

advance westward. The Prophet, born Tenskwatawa, was a traditionalist who

wished to purge American Indian culture of any European influence.

Then-Governor William Henry Harrison and his men successfully repulsed a

surprise attack by them and subsequently burned a tribal settlement at

Tippecanoe. This military disaster left the brothers with a poor reputation among

American Indians.

● War of 1812: Often called “The Second War of Independence.” Fought

1812–1815. It is the U.S. term for the North American theater of the Napoleonic

Wars. Tensions between the United States and Britain had been high since the

attack on the USS Chesapeake. Following unsuccessful economic sanctions under

the Jefferson administration, the Monroe administration was pressured into

declaring war by Congressional War Hawks. The war went poorly, and nearly led

to New England’s secession at the Hartford Convention. British forces burned the

White House in August 1814. However, the United States managed not to lose

territory before the Treaty of Ghent was signed, and the Battle of New Orleans

reinvigorated U.S. morale.

● Fort McHenry: A base in Baltimore, Maryland. It was involved in the Battle of

Baltimore during the War of 1812. U.S. soldiers valiantly held Fort McHenry

through a night of bombing by the British Royal Navy in Chesapeake Bay,

inspiring Francis Scott Key, who was being held prisoner on a nearby British

ship, to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

● Francis Scott Key: Creator of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” See: Fort McHenry.

● The Star-Spangled Banner: The U.S. national anthem. Written by Francis

Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry during the War of

1812. It was made the official national anthem in 1931 during the twilight of the

Hoover administration, but had gained some official recognition as a national

anthem by the Wilson administration in 1916.

● Andrew Jackson: Seventh President. Served 1829–1837. He gained fame for

his defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812, a rare outright U.S. victory in

that conflict. Jackson advocated for the “common man” against established

interests, and supported universal male suffrage for whites, nixing the existing

property requirement that barred the poor from participating in democracy. He

also pushed for a spoils system to reward supporters, opposed abolitionism, and

killed the Second Bank of the United States. He forcefully quashed South

Carolina during the Nullification Crisis. Jackson is infamous for creating the Trail

of Tears. See: Tariff of 1832.

● Battle of New Orleans: A battle fought between U.S. forces led by Andrew

Jackson and British forces. It occurred from January 6–18, 1815. Jackson,

desperate to secure the economically vital port of New Orleans, which controlled

the flow of traffic along the Mississippi, recruited local free African Americans

and even a band of pirates to supplement his militia. The battle was a stunning

lopsided American victory. Due to the slow speed at which news traveled during

this period, the battle actually occurred after the War of 1812 had officially ended.

● Treaty of Ghent: It ended the War of 1812, and was signed by American envoys

and British diplomats in Belgium on December 24, 1814. The provisions of the

treaty provided for the return of any conquered territories to their rightful

owners, and the settlement of a boundary between Canada and the United States.

Essentially, the war ended in a draw—neither side gained any major concessions,

restitution, or apologies. Most Americans were pleased, however, because they

had expected to lose territory. See: Battle of New Orleans, Hartford Convention.

Ideological Divides in the United States

● Hartford Convention: During the winter of 1814–1815, a radical group of New

England Federalists met at Hartford, Connecticut to discuss ways to demand that

the federal government pay them for the loss of trade due to the Embargo Act and

the War of 1812. The group also proposed amending the Constitution to: limit the

U.S. President to one term; require a two-thirds vote to enact an embargo,

declare war, and admit new states; and repeal the Three-Fifths Compromise.

Some even suggested secession. However, news of the war’s end and Jackson’s

victory at New Orleans swept the nation, resulting in the Federalists being labeled

unpatriotic and leading to their party’s demise.

● James Tallmadge: New York senator. He proposed an amendment to

Missouri’s bid for statehood. After the admission of Missouri as a state, the

Tallmadge Amendment would not have allowed any more slaves to be brought

into the state and would have provided for the emancipation of the children of

Missouri slaves at the age of 25 years. Southerners were outraged by this

abolition attempt and crushed the amendment in the Senate. This led to the

Missouri Compromise.

● Emancipation: The freeing of slaves. See: James Tallmadge.

● Missouri Compromise: Proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, it constituted

three bills which collectively allowed for the admission of Missouri as a slave state

while also admitting Maine as a free state. This would maintain the balance of

power in the Senate. In addition, slavery would not be permitted in states

admitted above the latitude 36 ̊30’ (with the exception of Missouri, which lay

above the line). Clay’s compromise was accepted by both North and South and

lasted for 34 years, earning him the title “the Great Compromiser.” Functionally

repealed by Kansas-Nebraska Act, but not officially overturned until the Dred

Scott v. Sandford ruling declared it was unconstitutional.

Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings

● Era of Good Feelings: A period of national unity, it began with the close of the

War of 1812 and ended in the 1820s. It saw the collapse of the Federalist Party

and a decline in partisanship. It was followed by a revival of partisan bickering

between the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs.

● John Quincy Adams: Sixth President. Served from 1825–1829. Son of John

Adams. In his lifetime, JQA was a member of basically every major political party

at some point. He was elected after striking a deal with Henry Clay in the

disputed 1824 election. Following his presidency, JQA was elected to the House

in 1830, and served until his death in 1848. He became increasingly opposed to

slavery, even arguing before the Supreme Court in 1841 on behalf of African

slaves in the Amistad case, winning them their freedom. He criticized the

Mexican-American War.

● Monroe Doctrine: Proposed by President Monroe in his annual address to

Congress in 1823, it quickly became the basis of U.S. foreign policy in Latin

America. The doctrine called for “nonintervention” in Latin America and an end

to European colonization. Though the U.S. did not actually have an strong

enough military to defend the doctrine if necessary, it remained firm and adhered

to the Doctrine throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. See:

Roosevelt Corollary.

● Tariff of 1816: Because of a postwar upsurge in nationalism after the War of

1812, there was a strong desire to protect all things American, especially the

burgeoning industrial economy. To prevent cheap British goods from flooding the

market and injuring American manufacturing, Congress passed the Tariff of 1816,

which imposed a 20 percent duty on all imported goods and became the first

truly “protective tariff ” in American history. However, the passage of the tariff

was unpopular in the South due to its export-oriented agricultural economy. The

tariff was allowed to lapse in 1820. See: Panic of 1819.

● Daniel Webster: U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1827–1841, 1845–1850)

and Secretary of State under Harrison and Tyler (1841–1843) and Fillmore

(1850–1852). A Whig politician and member of the Great Triumvirate. During

the debate over the Tariff of 1816, he complained that New England had not

developed enough to withstand interruptions in its ability to trade freely with

Britain. He opposed nullification. He often sought the presidency but never won.

He resigned his Senate seat over the negative reception to his support for the

Compromise of 1850.

● American System: Proposed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, it sought to establish

manufacturing and bring in much needed revenue for internal improvements

throughout the country. It included the recharter of the Bank of the United

States; protective tariffs, such as the one passed in 1816; and improvements on

American infrastructure, such as turnpikes, roads, and canals. The South did not

support the plan, as plantations (especially cotton ones) made their money on

export. Internal improvements also required a stronger federal government,

which potentially threatened the South’s control over their slave population.

● Second Bank of the United States: A national bank, patterned on Alexander

Hamilton’s design for the original. It existed from 1818–1824. The BUS was

chartered by James Madison in 1816, as he felt the need to strengthen the central

government after the problems encountered during the War of 1812. However,

the bank contributed to the Panic of 1819, infuriating many and leading to

Andrew Jackson’s successful effort to kill it. However, this act by Jackson would

contribute to long-running instability in the American economy until the creation

of the Federal Reserve System after the Panic of 1907.

The Rise of the Two-Party System

● Rise of the Common Man: An aspect of what became the Jacksonian

Democrats. By 1820, many states had adopted universal male suffrage for whites,

eliminating the property-owning requirement to be able to vote. This era signaled

a retreat from exclusive rule by the well-to-do and a shift to a more democratic

society.

● Democrats: During the Era of Good Feelings, the Democratic-Republicans

fragmented. During the 1828 election, the Democrats supported Andrew Jackson

and the National Republican faction supported Henry Clay. Jackson’s faction

founded the modern Democratic Party. In this period, prior to the Civil War, the

(Jacksonian) Democrats favored an agrarian economy, ending the national bank,

lowering tariffs, and increasing the political power of the “common man,” such as

through universal male suffrage for whites. They also supported states’ rights and

federal restraint in social affairs.

● National Republicans: A faction of the splintering Democratic-Republicans

during the 1828 election. They supported Henry Clay and opposed Andrew

Jackson. The National Republicans eventually became the Whig Party in 1836.

Whig ideology was very similar to the platform of the old Federalist Party. See:

Democrats.

● Whig Party: The Whig Party was born out of opposition to Jacksonian

Democrats. The Whigs favored economic nationalism, a strong central

government, and rechartering the national bank. They believed in protectionist

measures such as tariffs to support American industrialization. They also

promoted Clay’s American System as a way to improve the roads, canals, and

infrastructure of the country. The party collapsed over the question of slavery’s

expansion into newly acquired territories.

● Two-party system: The United States is noted for its enduring two-party

system; the life cycle of which two parties are dominant is referred to as a Party

System. There are five recognized party systems, although a Sixth Party System

(starting in the late 1960s) is sometimes also listed.

● McCulloch v. Maryland: An 1819 case that challenged the doctrine of

federalism. It involved the state of Maryland attempting to collect a tax from the

Second Bank of the United States. Marshall invoked the “necessary and proper”

clause of the Constitution to rule that the federal government had an implied

power to establish the bank. He also declared that the state had no right to tax a

federal institution; he argued that “the power to tax was the power to destroy”

and would signal the end of federalism. Most importantly, the ruling established

that federal laws were the supreme law of the land, superseding state laws.

● Specie Circular: A requirement instituted by the Jackson administration. The

payment for the purchase of all federal lands had to be made in hard coin, or

specie, rather than banknotes. Contributed to the Panic of 1837.

● Panic of 1837: A financial crisis that lasted from 1837 until the mid 1840s.

Caused, in part, by Andrew Jackson killing the Bank of the United States and

issuing the Specie Circular, the latter of which caused the value of paper money to

plummet.

● Tariff of 1828: This tariff came about in response to New England merchants

who had been pushing for stronger protection from foreign competitors.

However, the new tariff was incredibly damaging to the southern economy,

causing Vice President John C. Calhoun to secretly write “The Southern Carolina

Exposition and Protest,” which threatened South Carolina’s secession. Calling the

tariff the “Tariff of Abominations,” Calhoun recommended that the southern

states declare it to be null and void (nuff liciation) if the federal government

refused to lower the duty requirement. In an attempt to appease the South,

Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832.

● Tariff of 1832: It lowered the Tariff of 1828’s rate from 45 percent to 35 percent

in a failed attempt to placate the South. Calhoun resigned from the vice

presidency in response. South Carolina voted to nullify the Tariff of 1832 and

threatened to secede if Jackson attempted to collect the duties by force. In

response, Jackson encouraged Congress to lower tariffs even more. However, he

also asked Congress to pass the Force Bill, which gave the president the power to

use the military to collect tariffs. This signaled to the South that their threats

would not be tolerated. In response, South Carolina rescinded the nullification.

However, the tensions between the North and the South would continue to

escalate, culminating in the Civil War.

● Spoils system: A form of political corruption where a political parties rewards

its supporters with favors, often posts to public office. Andrew Jackson was a

proponent of the spoils system, in which he appointed those who supported his

campaign to government positions. Jackson created jobs and appointed many

friends to his unofficial cabinet, earning it the name “Kitchen Cabinet” from

critics. See: political machines, Pendleton Civil Service Act.

● Indian Removal Act: This law provided for the immediate forced resettlement

of American Indians living in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and

present-day Illinois. By 1835, some 100,000 Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw,

Creek, and Seminole American Indians had been forcibly removed from their

homelands. See: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Trail of Tears, Worcester v.

Georgia.

● Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: A Supreme Court case from 1831. The Marshall

court ruled that the Cherokee Tribe was not a sovereign foreign nation and,

therefore, had no right to sue for jurisdiction over its homelands. See: Worcester

v. Georgia.

● Worcester v. Georgia: A Supreme Court case (1832) which ruled that the

state of Georgia could not infringe on the Cherokee Nation’s sovereignty, thus

nullifying Georgia state laws within the tribe’s territory. President Jackson,

incensed, allegedly said, “John Marshall has made his decision; now let him

enforce it.” The expulsion of the Cherokee resulted in the Trail of Tears. Also

notable as being one of the few times a president ignored a Supreme Court ruling.

Religious Revival and Reform Movements

● Second Great Awakening: A Protestant religious movement that took place

across the United States between the 1790s and the 1840s. It peaked in the 1820s.

Unlike the (First) Great Awakening, it gradually came to place a greater emphasis

on slavery as a sin. See: abolitionism, American Temperance Society, Baptist,

Charles G. Finney, Methodist.

● Charles G. Finney: A Presbyterian minister during the Second Great

Awakening. Like Jonathan Edwards of the First Great Awakening, Finney

appealed to his audience’s emotions, rather than to their reason. His “fire and

brimstone” sermons became commonplace in upstate New York. Finney insisted

that parishioners could save themselves through good works and a steadfast faith

in God. He also was an abolitionist, and condemned slavery from the pulpit.

● Methodists: Methodism is a form of Protestant Christianity based on the

teachings of John Wesley. It split off from the Anglican Church. They accept

infant baptism and stress charitable work, especially that which alleviates the

suffering of the poor. During the Second Great Awakening, Methodist and Baptist

ministers often preached at tent revivals, converting thousands. This led to these

two forms of Protestantism becoming the two largest denominations of

Christianity in the U.S. during this period.

● Baptists: An evangelical sect of Protestant Christianity. Generally, they believe

that baptism should only be performed on adults who can profess their faith (as

opposed to infant baptism). Baptists also believe in salvation through faith alone,

not requiring good works, and in the supremacy of the Bible as the sole authority

over theological matters. During the Second Great Awakening, Methodist and

Baptist ministers often preached at tent revivals, converting thousands. This led

to these two forms of Protestantism becoming the two largest denominations of

Christianity in the U.S. during this period.

● American Temperance Society: Revival preachers of the Second Great

Awakening joined forces in the 1820s to form the American Temperance Society.

While their initial goal was to encourage drinkers simply to limit their alcohol

intake, the movement soon evolved to demand absolute abstinence, as reformers

began to see the negative effects that any alcohol consumption had on people’s

lives. The movement quickly earned the support of state leaders as decreased

alcohol use resulted in fewer on-the-job accidents and more overall productivity.

The most active members of temperance societies tended to be middle-class

women.

● Dorothea DIx: Revival preachers of the Second Great Awakening joined forces

in the 1820s to form the American Temperance Society. While their initial goal

was to encourage drinkers simply to limit their alcohol intake, the movement

soon evolved to demand absolute abstinence, as reformers began to see the

negative effects that any alcohol consumption had on people’s lives. The

movement quickly earned the support of state leaders as decreased alcohol use

resulted in fewer on-the-job accidents and more overall productivity. The most

active members of temperance societies tended to be middle-class women.

● Sylvester Graham: A nineteenth-century Presbyterian minister, Reverend

Graham is best known for advocating vegetarianism and supporting the

temperance movement. Graham crackers were not invented by him, but they are

named in his honor.

● John Harvey Kellogg: Inventor of the corn flake, he espoused the importance

of healthy diets. Dr. Kellogg established the Battle Creek Mental Institution to put

his ideas about diet and health into practice.

● Cult of domesticity: The Industrial Revolution had social consequences.

People no longer necessarily labored in the field or in small home industries. As

children became less important as a source of labor, and men took factory jobs,

the position of women became centered on the home. This led to the elevation of

motherhood and homemaking in the “cult of domesticity” in the early nineteenth

century.

● Abolitionists: Advocates for ending slavery. Aside from the influence of

Enlightenment ideas about freedom, many abolitionists believed that slavery was

sinful and, therefore, must be eliminated. As Charles Sumner said in 1860:

“[God] set an everlasting difference between man and a chattel, giving to man

dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every

living thing that moveth upon the earth:—that fight we hold By His donation; but

man over men He made not lord, such title to Himself Reserving, human left

from human free.”

● Lucretia Mott: An abolitionist, pacifist, Quaker, and suffragist. After being

barred from attending the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840, she became

interest in women’s rights, and helped convene the Seneca Falls Convention. She

co-wrote the Declaration of Sentiments.

● Elizabeth Cady Stanton: American suffragist and abolitionist who co-founded

the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 with

Susan B. Anthony. Attended the Seneca Falls conference and was the principal

author of the Declaration of Sentiments.

● Susan B. Anthony: A noted abolitionist and women’s suffragist. With other

feminists, she organized an landmark convention at Seneca Falls, New York, to

discuss the plight of U.S. women. She co-founded the National American Woman

Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890. Died in 1906. See: Declaration of

Sentiments, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott

● Declaration of Sentiments: The women at the Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) drafted this document. Modeled after the Declaration of Independence, it

declared that “all men and women are created equal” and demanded suffrage for

women. Much like the earlier temperance movement, the women’s crusade soon

became eclipsed by the abolitionist movement and did not resurface until closer

to the turn of the twentieth century. See: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott,

Susan B. Anthony.

● American Anti-slavery Society: Founded by William Lloyd Garrison in 1833,

it opposed slave traders and owners. Garrison’s radicalism soon alienated many

moderates within the movement when he claimed that the Constitution was a

pro-slavery document. Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in the

movement led to division among his supporters and the formation of the Liberty

Party, which accepted women, and the American and Foreign Anti-slavery

Society, which did not.

● Liberty Party: Along with his radicalism and his attacks on churches, William

Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in his American

Antislavery Society led to a division among its supporters. This splinter faction,

the Liberty Party, accepted women members. Contrast with: Foreign Anti-slavery

Society.

● Foreign Anti-slavery Society: Along with his radicalism and his attacks on

churches, William Lloyd Garrison’s insistence on the participation of women in

his American Antislavery Society led to a division among its supporters. This

splinter faction, the Foreign Anti-slavery Society, did not accept women

members. Contrast with: Liberty Party.

● Harriet Tubman: She escaped from slavery and later helped others do the

same with the Underground Railroad. Tubman helped John Brown recruit his

band for the raid on Harper’s Ferry. After the Civil War, she advocated for

women’s suffrage.

● Sojourner Truth: An African American abolitionist and suffragist. Born into

slavery in New York and speaking Dutch as her first language, she is notable as

the first black woman to win a court case against a white man. She gave herself

her own name in 1843. She is best known for the “Ain’t I a Woman?” speech,

which advocated for both abolitionism and women’s rights.

● Frederick Douglas: A former slave, Douglass published The North Star, an

antislavery journal that chronicled the ugliness of slavery and argued that the

Constitution could be used as a weapon against slavery. Thus, Douglass argued

for fighting slavery through legal means in contrast to some other radical

abolitionists, who advocated varying degrees of violence to achieve abolition. His

1845 memoir, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, became a bestseller

and inspired many abolitionists. An egalitarian, he also supported women’s

suffrage.

● Underground Railroad: A network of abolitionists and

abolitionist-sympathizers who helped slaves escape into free states and Canada.

Members included Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman, among many others.

The Underground Railroad gained greater support after the Compromise of 1850.

At its peak, approximately 1,000 slaves per year escaped.

● Nat Turner’s Rebellion: Turner, an enslaved African American from Virginia,

organized a massive slave uprising in 1831. It resulted in the deaths of over 50

white men, women, and children, and the retaliatory killings of hundreds of

slaves. Afterwards, states across the South passed laws restricting civil rights for

all African Americans, free or slave, and banned educating them as well. See:

slave codes.

● Mormon: The common name for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of

Latter-Day Saints.

● Joseph Smith: Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (the

Mormon Church). According to Mormon tradition, an angel visited the young

Joseph Smith in western New York in 1823 to reveal the location of a sacred text

that was inscribed on gold plates and had been buried by the fabled “Lost Tribe of

Israel.” By 1830, Joseph Smith had allegedly translated the sacred text. He was

murdered by a mob in Illinois in 1844.

● Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Informally known as the

Mormon Church, it was founded by Joseph Smith. The followers of Mormonism

were ostracized and harassed—in large part, due to the practice of polygamy

(having multiple wives)—by their surrounding community and left New York to

head west. The Mormons later settled in Utah.

● Brigham Young: Following the 1844 murder of Joseph Smith, he became the

new leader of the Mormons, holding that position for 29 years until his own

death in 1877 from a ruptured appendix. He led his followers west, finally settling

in present-day Utah.

● Transcendentalists: A name for artists and writers of the Romantic Era,

specifically ones who emphasized emotions and the connection between man and

nature. They were a reaction to both the rationality of the Enlightenment and the

burgeoning Industrial Revolution. Examples include Ralph Waldo Emerson and

Henry David Thoreau; they claimed that each person was able to communicate

with God and nature directly, eliminating the need for organized churches. They

promoted individualism, self-reliance, and freedom from social constraints.

● Ralph Waldo Emerson: An American poet and essayist, and member of the

transcendentalist movement. He was a close friend of Henry David Thoreau. Like

Thoreau, he supported abolitionism and stressed self-reliance.

● Henry David Thoreau: A transcendentalist whose book Walden chronicled a

self-initiated experiment in which Thoreau removed himself from society by

living in seclusion in the woods for two years. However, perhaps even more

influential was his essay “On Civil Disobedience,” in which he advocated passive

resistance as a form of justifiable protest. This essay would inspire later social

movement leaders Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. An

abolitionist, he also opposed the Mexican-American War.

Birth of American Culture

● Hudson River School: A form of large-scale landscape paintings from the

Romantic era.

● Knickerbockers: A name for members of the Knickerbocker Group, a vague

collection of American authors influenced by the nationalistic mood that followed

the War of 1812. Washington Irving developed American fiction by using

domestic settings and character types for their stories. Tales such as Rip Van

Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow were based on preexisting stories. Tales

of the frontier were glorified by James Fenimore Cooper, whose The Last of the

Mohicans gained worldwide attention. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter

and Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick addressed important questions regarding

religion and morality.

● Robert Fulton: Inventor of the steamboat, which he created in 1807. Before the

steamboat, river travel was done by flatboats or by keelboats. The steamboat

allowed goods and people to be transported easily both upstream and

downstream. See: Erie Canal.

● Erie Canal: Completed in 1825 with funds provided by the state of New York, it

linked the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. As a result, the cost of shipping

dropped dramatically, and port cities along the length of the canal and its

terminal points began to develop and flourish.

● Nativists: Anti-immigrant activists in the nineteenth century. In this period,

many native-born Americans were Protestants of English ancestry. They disliked

the large numbers of Irish and Germans that began to arrive in the 1840s,

especially due to their Roman Catholic faith, which attracted paranoia about

them being a fifth column for the Pope. Many Central Europeans were also

leftists fleeing from prosecution after the failed Revolutions of 1848. On the West

Coast, Chinese immigrants prompted similar xenophobic sentiments. See:

American Party (Know-Nothing Party), Chinese Exclusion Act, Emergency Quota

Act.

● American Party, or “Know-Nothing Party”: In 1849, a wing of the nativist

movement became a political party called the American Party. The group

opposed both immigration and the election of Roman Catholics to political office.

The members of the party met in secret and would not tell anyone what they

stood for, saying, “I know nothing,” when asked. This provided the basis for the

group’s more common name.

● Eli Whitney: Famously invented the cotton gin in 1793, which sped up the

process of removing the seeds from raw cotton, making cotton the number one

cash crop of the South. Plantation owners switched from growing tobacco to

growing cotton to keep up with increasing demands from domestic and overseas

markets. He also popularized (but did not invent) the concept of interchangeable

machine parts. See: King Cotton.

● King Cotton: Made possible by Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, King Cotton was when

the lucrative cotton export business caused an expansion of slavery, from one

million slaves to four million in 50 years, because more workers were needed to

work the fields. It essentially made civil war inevitable, as slave owners now had

too much invested in the institution of slavery to ever accept voluntarily

emancipation, as some former slave states in the North had. See: slave codes.

● Slave codes: These laws were aimed at oppressing enslaved Africans,

discouraging free blacks from living in the South, and preventing slave revolts.

They were created to support the exploitative slave plantation economy of King

Cotton, as well as to suppress potential slave uprisings like Nat Turner’s

Rebellion. Compare with: Jim Crow laws, sharecropping