Revolutions: Nationalism, Discontent, and Ideologies

Causes of Revolutions

• Nationalism: A sense of commonality among people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked to a desire for territory.

  • A new development during this period.

  • States tried to foster unity by injecting nationalist themes into schools, public rituals, and military service.

  • Example: Russian leaders required the Russian language, backfired in places like Ukraine, Poland, and Finland, creating counter-nationalism.

• Discontent with Monarchist and Imperial Rule: Rejection of authority across the world.

  • Example: The Safavid Empire faced rebellion due to harsh new taxes, leading to its weakening and eventual end.

  • Example: The Wahhabi movement sought to reform Islam in the Ottoman Empire, contributing to its decline.

• New Ideologies and Systems of Government: Development of enlightenment ideals.

  • Popular sovereignty: The power to govern is in the hands of the people.

  • Democracy: People must have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government.

  • Liberalism: An economic and political ideology that emphasized the protection of civil rights, the necessity of a representative government, the protection of private property, and economic freedom.

Major Atlantic Revolutions

• Inspired by democratic ideas.

American Revolution (1776)

• British colonies in North America developed independently due to distance from Britain.

• Britain clamped down on colonies after the Seven Years' War to pay war debts, imposing new taxes.

• Enlightenment principles influenced the revolution, as seen in the Declaration of Independence (popular sovereignty, natural rights, social contract).

• With help from France, the Americans won, and the United States was born in 1783.

• Provided a template for successful overthrow of oppressive power and the establishment of a republican-style government.

French Revolution (1789)

• French soldiers returning from the American Revolution were inspired by democratic ideals.

• Louis XVI attempted to tighten control to pay war debts, leading to rebellion.

• The government was overthrown and a republic established.

• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen championed natural rights and popular sovereignty.

Haitian Revolution (1791)

• Haiti was a prosperous French colony with a majority enslaved black population.

• Inspired by French revolutionaries calling for liberty and equality, the enslaved Haitians revolted under Toussaint Louverture.

• They eventually defeated the French and established the second republic in the Western Hemisphere and the first black government in this region.

Latin American Revolutions

• Spanish and Portuguese colonies were influenced by enlightenment ideas and resented increasing imperial control.

• Creoles (those of European heritage born in The Americas) resented the political power of the Peninsulares (European-born Europeans).

• Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 created instability and the opportunity for revolution.

• Creole military leaders like Simon Bolivar appealed to colonial subjects with enlightenment ideals, as summarized in his Letter from Jamaica.

• Wars led to independence for many Latin American colonies, which formed republican governments.

Other Nationalist Movements

• Nationalism led to calls for self-rule and national unification.

Propaganda Movement in the Philippines

• A Spanish colony with a similar racial hierarchy as in the Americas.

• Wealthier creoles and mestizos traveled to Europe for education and absorbed nationalist and enlightenment ideas.

• They published these ideas, leading Spanish authorities to suppress the movement, resulting in the Philippine Revolution.

Unification of Italy and Germany

• Before and during this period, Italy and Germany were made up of fragmented states.

• Under the influence of nationalism, military leaders inspired their populations to unify under a single government.

• Diplomacy and military tactics led to the unification of these fragmented regions.