Bullying: Overview and Definitions

• Definition (Olweus, 2013): Strategic aggressive behaviour repeatedly inflicted on a victim with the intention to cause harm, within a relationship characterized by a power imbalance.

• Types of Bullying:

1.    Physical: Hitting, kicking, pushing, damaging property.

2.    Verbal: Name-calling, insults, teasing, intimidation.

3.    Social/Relational: Spreading rumours, encouraging exclusion, damaging reputations.

4.    Cyberbullying: Abuse through digital platforms (e.g., DMs, revenge porn, imitating someone online).

2. Measurement of Bullying

• Methods include self-report, peer-report, and parent/teacher report, each with strengths and limitations (e.g., subjectivity, underreporting).

• Frequency thresholds vary (e.g., at least twice per academic term).

3. Prevalence of Bullying

• Average estimates in schools:

  • 11% of children are victims.

  • 10% report being bullies.

  • 6% are both bullies and victims.

4. Cognitive Origins of Bullying

• Social Information Processing Biases:

  • Aggressive children show biases like attributing hostility to others and pursuing dominance goals (Crick & Dodge, 1994).

• Theory of Mind: Bullies may have advanced abilities to understand others’ mental states, aiding manipulation (Sutton et al., 1999).

• Moral Disengagement: Justifications for harm (e.g., blaming peers) are common among bullies (Gini, 2006).

5. Social Origins of Bullying

• Roles in Bullying: Bully, assistant, reinforcer, defender, bystander.

  • 85% of bullying incidents have bystander witnesses.

• Social Goals:

  • Bullies aim for dominance (agentic goals).

  • Victims focus on avoidance (submissive goals).

• Popularity: Some bullies maintain high peer visibility and perceived popularity.

• School Climate:

  • Poor climates correlate with higher bullying rates.

  • Interventions targeting school climate show promise.

6. Cyberbullying

• Shares characteristics with traditional bullying but with distinct features:

  • Can be anonymous.

  • Extends into home life (24/7).

  • Faster spread of harm (via digital platforms).

  • Often sexualized (e.g., revenge porn).

• Prevalence and Overlap:

  • Estimates vary widely (3-50%).

  • Significant overlap with traditional bullying; 50-90% of cyberbullying victims are also traditionally bullied (Olweus & Limber, 2018).

7. Deviant Peer Relationships

• Deviant Talk: Discussion of rule-breaking behaviour predicts increased antisocial actions (Piehler & Dishion, 2007).

• Peer Contagion:

  • Aggressive peers reinforce antisocial behaviour.

  • Peer rejection exacerbates aggression and limits positive skill development.

• Developmental Cascades:

  • Early deviant behaviour predicts later issues like drug use, school failure, and criminality.

8. Peer Contagion and Body Image

• Appearance-based teasing and "fat talk" in peer groups contribute to body dissatisfaction and dieting behaviours (Hutchinson & Rapee, 2007).

9. Peer Influence and Moderators

• Peer effects vary by relationship quality, individual traits (e.g., social anxiety), and peer status.

• Positive peer influence can enhance social behaviour and academic outcomes.

10. Intervention Strategies

• Components of effective anti-bullying programs:

  • Curriculum-based education (e.g., role-playing).

  • Parent involvement.

  • Peer mentoring and mediation.

  • School-wide policies and campaigns.

Cyberbullying

Definition & Characteristics

• Shares core features with traditional bullying:

  • Power imbalance, intention to harm, strategic and repeated behaviours.

• Key differences:

  • Direct/indirect, anonymous attacks.

  • Faster spread with broader reach.

  • Less adult supervision online.

  • Sexualized content (e.g., revenge porn).

  • Perpetrated 24/7, including at home.

Prevalence

• Estimates range from 3-4% to 50% of young people experiencing cyberbullying.

• Challenges in measurement:

  • Varied timeframes, thresholds, and definitions.

• High overlap with traditional bullying:

  • 50–90% of cyberbullying victims also experience traditional bullying (Olweus & Limber, 2018).

Outcomes of Cyberbullying

• Links to increased:

  • Depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem.

  • Negative academic and social impacts.

Deviant Peer Relationships

Friendship & Peer Influence

• Characteristics of Friendship:

  • Voluntary, reciprocated, intimate, and stable.

  • Affects social competence, mental health, and academic performance.

• Homophily:

  • Tendency for like-minded individuals to associate.

  • Two mechanisms:

    • Selection: Choosing peers based on similarity.

    • Socialization: Mutual influence, leading to behavioural convergence.

Deviancy Training

• Defined as reinforcement of aggressive or rule-breaking behaviour through peer interactions.

• Evidence:

  • Aggressive preschoolers engage in play that reinforces aggression (Snyder et al., 1997).

  • Deviant peer groups exacerbate aggressive tendencies.

Peer Rejection

• Aggressive children often face peer rejection.

  • Predicts later conduct disorders and antisocial behaviour (Hay et al., 2004).

• Cascade effects:

  • Peer rejection → Aggressive friends → Deviant peers → School failure, criminality.

Peer Contagion

• Definition:

  • A mutual influence process where peers affect each other's behaviour, often negatively.

Specific Areas of Contagion

1.    Antisocial Behaviour:

o   Deviant talk predicts growth in rule-breaking, aggression, and delinquency (Piehler & Dishion, 2007).

o   Text-message studies show content, not volume, predicts antisocial tendencies (Ehrenreich et al., 2014).

2.    Body Image:

o   Peer teasing and "fat talk" linked to body dissatisfaction.

o   Behaviours cluster within friendship groups.

3.    Depression:

o   Friends' depressive symptoms influence adolescents, especially in close friendships.

o   Mechanisms:

§  Co-rumination, reassurance seeking, and negative feedback loops.

Moderating Factors

• Characteristics of the individual (e.g., social anxiety, self-regulation).

• Peer attributes (e.g., popularity, status).

• Relationship dynamics (e.g., quality, closeness).

Positive Aspects of Peer Influence

• Benefits of Conformity:

  • Enhances group belonging, stability, and academic engagement.

• Emphasized need for research on promoting positive peer behaviours.