2.1: Contextualizing 16th and 17th-Century Challenges and Developments

Pre-Luther Reformers and Reform Movements

• The period before the Protestant Reformation saw several reformers and reform movements that paved the way for Martin Luther's ideas.

• These reformers and movements challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and sought to reform its practices.

• John Wycliffe

  • English theologian and reformer who lived in the 14th century.

  • Advocated for the translation of the Bible into English so that ordinary people could read it.

  • Criticized the Catholic Church's wealth and corruption.

  • His followers, known as Lollards, continued his work after his death.

• Jan Hus

  • Czech theologian and reformer who lived in the 15th century.

  • Criticized the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and its corruption.

  • Advocated for the use of vernacular languages in religious services.

  • Burned at the stake for heresy in 1415.

• Erasmus

  • Dutch humanist and theologian who lived in the 15th and 16th centuries.

  • Criticized the Catholic Church's corruption and called for reform.

  • Advocated for the study of classical texts and the use of reason in religion.

  • His ideas influenced Martin Luther and other reformers.

• Savonarola

  • Italian friar and reformer who lived in the late 15th century.

  • Criticized the Catholic Church's corruption and immorality.

  • Called for a return to a simpler, more moral form of Christianity.

  • Executed for heresy in 1498.

Critiques of the Catholic Church

• Corruption

  • Many people believed that the Catholic Church was corrupt and that its leaders were more concerned with accumulating wealth and power than with serving God.

  • The sale of indulgences, which were supposed to reduce the amount of time a person spent in purgatory, was seen as a particularly egregious example of corruption.

• Clerical celibacy

  • The requirement that priests remain celibate was seen as unnatural and led to many abuses, including sexual misconduct and the fathering of illegitimate children.

• Papal authority

  • The power of the Pope was seen as excessive and many people believed that he should not have the final say in matters of faith and doctrine.

  • The idea of papal infallibility, which holds that the Pope is incapable of error when speaking on matters of faith and morals, was also criticized.

• The sale of church offices

  • Many church offices were sold to the highest bidder, leading to the appointment of unqualified and corrupt individuals to positions of power within the Church.

• The use of Latin in church services

  • The use of Latin in church services made it difficult for ordinary people to understand what was being said and led to a sense of alienation from the Church.

Economic Developments in the Age of Reformations

• The discovery of the New World and the establishment of trade routes with Asia led to an increase in international trade and commerce.

• The rise of capitalism and the growth of merchant class led to the development of new economic systems and practices.

• The Protestant Reformation played a significant role in the economic changes of the period, as it challenged the traditional Catholic Church's control over economic affairs.

• The rise of Protestantism also led to the development of new forms of banking and finance, such as the Dutch banking system.

• The growth of capitalism and the merchant class also led to the development of new industries, such as textiles, mining, and shipbuilding.

• The growth of these industries led to the development of new technologies and innovations, such as the spinning jenny and the steam engine.

• The Age of Reformations also saw the rise of colonialism and the establishment of European colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

• The exploitation of these colonies for resources and labor played a significant role in the economic development of Europe during this period.

Political Developments in the Age of Reformations

• Rise of Nation-States

  • The Age of Reformations saw the emergence of nation-states as the dominant political entities in Europe.

  • The concept of a nation-state, where a single ethnic or cultural group governed itself, gained popularity.

  • This led to the decline of feudalism and the rise of centralized monarchies.

• Religious Conflicts

  • The Reformation led to religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, which had significant political implications.

  • The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a major conflict that involved most of the European powers and resulted in the deaths of millions of people.

  • The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the war and established the principle of state sovereignty.

• Absolutism

  • The Age of Reformations saw the rise of absolutism, where monarchs claimed absolute power and authority over their subjects.

  • This was seen as a way to maintain order and stability in a time of religious and political turmoil.

  • Louis XIV of France is often seen as the epitome of absolutism.

• Colonialism

  • European powers began to establish colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia during the Age of Reformations.

  • This led to the expansion of European influence and power around the world.

  • Colonialism also had significant political and economic implications, as European powers competed for resources and territory.

• Enlightenment

  • The Enlightenment, which began in the late 17th century, challenged the traditional political and social order.

  • Enlightenment thinkers advocated for individual rights, democracy, and the separation of powers.

  • These ideas would have a significant impact on the political developments of the following centuries.

2.2: Luther and the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther

• Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian who lived in the 16th century.

• He was dissatisfied with the Catholic Church's teachings and practices, especially the sale of indulgences.

• In 1517, he wrote the 95 Theses, which criticized the Church's corruption and sparked the Protestant Reformation.

• Luther's teachings emphasized the importance of faith and the Bible, and rejected the authority of the Pope and the Church's sacraments.

• He translated the Bible into German, making it accessible to the common people.

• Luther's ideas spread quickly throughout Europe, leading to the formation of various Protestant denominations.

• The Protestant Reformation had a significant impact on European history, leading to religious wars, political changes, and the rise of modern capitalism.

John Calvin

• John Calvin was a French theologian and pastor who played a significant role in the Protestant Reformation.

• He was born in 1509 in Noyon, France and studied law and theology in Paris.

• Calvin's conversion to Protestantism was influenced by the works of Martin Luther and he became a leading figure in the Reformation movement.

• He wrote the influential book "Institutes of the Christian Religion" which outlined his beliefs and became a key text of Protestant theology.

• Calvin believed in the doctrine of predestination, which held that God had already determined who would be saved and who would be damned.

• He also believed in the importance of a strong, disciplined church and established a theocratic government in Geneva, Switzerland where he lived and worked.

• Calvin's teachings had a significant impact on the development of Protestantism and his ideas continue to influence Christian theology today.

• He died in 1564 in Geneva, Switzerland, but his legacy lives on through the Calvinist movement and the many churches that follow his teachings.

Protestant Beliefs

• Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that originated from the 16th-century Reformation movement.

• Protestants believe in the following:

  • Sola Scriptura: The Bible is the only source of divine revelation and the ultimate authority for Christian faith and practice.

  • Sola Fide: Salvation is by faith alone, and not by good works or any other means.

  • Sola Gratia: Salvation is a free gift of God's grace, and cannot be earned or deserved.

  • Priesthood of all believers: Every Christian has direct access to God through Jesus Christ, and can approach Him without the need for a human mediator.

  • Justification by faith: A person is declared righteous before God solely on the basis of their faith in Jesus Christ, and not on the basis of their own merit or good works.

  • The Trinity: Protestants believe in one God who exists in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit.

  • The sacraments: Protestants recognize two sacraments: baptism and the Lord's Supper (also known as communion or the Eucharist).

  • The priesthood: Protestants reject the idea of a separate priesthood class, and believe that all Christians are called to be ministers of the gospel.

  • The church: Protestants believe that the church is the body of Christ, made up of all believers, and not a specific institution or hierarchy.

  • The second coming: Protestants believe in the imminent return of Jesus Christ to establish His kingdom on earth and judge the living and the dead.

2.3: Protestant Reform Continues

State Over Church?

• One of the key ideas of the Protestant Reformation was the concept of the "priesthood of all believers," which held that all Christians had direct access to God and did not need intermediaries like priests or the Pope.

• This idea challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to a shift in power from the Church to the state.

• In many Protestant countries, the state became the ultimate authority in religious matters, with the monarch or ruler serving as the head of the church.

• This led to the establishment of state churches, such as the Church of England, which was created by King Henry VIII in the 16th century.

• The state's control over the church allowed rulers to consolidate their power and exert greater control over their subjects.

• However, this also led to conflicts between the state and the church, as rulers sought to use religion for political purposes and the church sought to maintain its independence.

• In some cases, this led to religious wars and persecution of religious minorities, such as the Huguenots in France and the Anabaptists in Germany.

Groups the fought against the State

• Anabaptists: They believed in adult baptism and the separation of church and state. They rejected infant baptism and the idea of a state church. They were persecuted by both Catholics and Protestants.

• Radical Reformers: They were a diverse group of people who rejected the authority of the state and the established church. They believed in the direct guidance of the Holy Spirit and the importance of individual conscience.

• Peasants: They were a group of poor farmers who were oppressed by the ruling class. They saw the Reformation as an opportunity to fight for their rights and improve their living conditions. They rebelled against the state and the church, but their uprisings were brutally suppressed.

• Protestant Dissenters: They were Protestants who disagreed with the official doctrine of their church. They were often persecuted by the state and the established church. Some of them formed their own churches or joined other dissenting groups.

• Waldensians: They were a group of Christians who lived in the Alps and rejected the authority of the Catholic Church. They were persecuted for their beliefs and were forced to flee to other parts of Europe.

2.4: Wars of Religion

German Religious Conflict

• German Peasants' War (1524–25):

  • Peasants' uprising against feudal lords and the Catholic Church

  • Led by Thomas Müntzer and other radical reformers

  • Resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of peasants and the suppression of the rebellion

• Schmalkaldic Wars (1546-47):

  • Conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and the Schmalkaldic League of Protestant princes

  • Triggered by Emperor Charles V's attempt to enforce Catholicism in Protestant territories

  • Ended with the defeat of the Schmalkaldic League and the reaffirmation of Catholicism as the official religion of the Empire

• Peace of Augsburg (1555):

  • Treaty between the Holy Roman Empire and the Schmalkaldic League

  • Established the principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" (whose realm, his religion)

  • Allowed each prince to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism as the official religion of their territory

  • Marked the end of religious warfare in Germany and the beginning of a period of relative stability

French Religious Conflicts

• French Wars of Religion

  • This were a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants that lasted from 1562 to 1598.

  • The conflict began when Protestantism gained popularity among the French nobility, who saw it as a way to challenge the power of the Catholic Church and the monarchy.

• Massacre of Vassy (1562)

  • The first major conflict in 1562, where Catholic forces attacked a group of Huguenots (French Protestants) during a worship service, killing over 60 people.

  • The conflict escalated into a series of wars, with both sides committing atrocities against each other.

• St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

  • This was a turning point in the conflict, where thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris and throughout France.

  • The conflict ended with the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted religious toleration to the Huguenots and ended the wars.

The Thirty Years' War (1618 - 1648)

• The Thirty Years' War was a religious conflict fought primarily in Central Europe from 1618 to 1648.

• The war was fought between the Protestants and Catholics, and it involved most of the major European powers of the time.

• The war began in Bohemia, where the Protestant nobility rebelled against the Catholic Habsburgs, who ruled the region.

• The conflict soon spread to other parts of Europe, with Denmark, Sweden, France, and Spain all becoming involved at various times.

• The war was characterized by its brutality and the devastation it caused to the civilian population.

• The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland and granted religious freedom to the Protestants.

• The war also marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire as a major political entity in Europe.

Manipulative States

• The Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestantism as a separate branch of Christianity.

• Many states in Europe saw the Reformation as an opportunity to gain power and influence over their citizens.

• Manipulative states used the Reformation to further their own political agendas and to control their populations.

• Some states, such as England and Sweden, used the Reformation to break away from the Catholic Church and establish their own national churches.

• Other states, such as France and the Holy Roman Empire, used the Reformation as a means of suppressing dissent and maintaining political control.

• The French monarchy used the Reformation to justify the persecution of Protestants and to strengthen the power of the state.

• The Holy Roman Empire used the Reformation as a pretext for launching military campaigns against Protestant states and territories.

• The manipulative use of the Reformation by states contributed to the religious and political conflicts that characterized Europe during this period.

2.5: The Catholic Reformation

• The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a period of Catholic revival that began in response to the Protestant Reformation. It aimed to address the criticisms of the Catholic Church and to reassert its authority.

Causes of The Catholic Reformation

• The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the loss of many followers.

• The printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread quickly and easily.

• The Catholic Church was criticized for its corruption, wealth, and lack of spirituality.

Key Figures of The Catholic Reformation

• Pope Paul III: He called the Council of Trent, which was a key event in the Catholic Reformation.

• St. Ignatius of Loyola: He founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), which became an important force in the Catholic Church.

• St. Teresa of Avila: She reformed the Carmelite order and emphasized the importance of personal prayer and devotion.

Key Events

• Council of Trent (1545-1563): This council addressed the criticisms of the Catholic Church and reaffirmed its teachings. It also established seminaries to train priests and banned the sale of indulgences.

• Establishment of the Jesuits (1540): This order was founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola and became an important force in the Catholic Church, emphasizing education and missionary work.

• Reforms of St. Teresa of Avila (16th century): St. Teresa reformed the Carmelite order and emphasized the importance of personal prayer and devotion.

Impact of The Catholic Reformation

• The Catholic Church regained some of its lost followers and reasserted its authority.

• The Council of Trent clarified Catholic teachings and established the basis for the modern Catholic Church.

• The Jesuits became an important force in the Catholic Church, emphasizing education and missionary work.

• The Catholic Reformation led to a period of artistic and cultural renewal known as the Baroque period.

2.6: 16th-Century Society & Politics in Europe

The Social Ladder

• Nobility

  • The highest social class was the nobility.

  • They were born into their status and had privileges such as owning land, collecting taxes, and having political power.

  • They were expected to serve the monarch and were often given high-ranking positions in the government or military.

• Clergy

  • The clergy was the second-highest social class.

  • They were responsible for religious duties and had significant influence over the people.

  • They were exempt from taxes and had access to education and healthcare.

• Bourgeoisie

  • The bourgeoisie was the middle class.

  • They were merchants, bankers, and professionals.

  • They had wealth and education but were not born into their status.

• Peasants

  • The peasants were the lowest social class.

  • They were farmers and laborers who worked for the nobility and clergy.

  • They had little to no education and were often poor.

• Women

  • Women were not considered a social class but were instead placed within their respective social classes.

  • They had limited rights and opportunities, and their roles were primarily domestic.

Community and Leisure

• Community

  • People lived in small villages and towns, and everyone knew each other.

  • The community was responsible for taking care of its members, especially the poor, sick, and elderly.

  • The church played a significant role in the community, providing spiritual guidance and organizing social events.

  • Communities were tightly knit and centered around the church and local lord.

• Leisure

  • Leisure time was limited, and most people worked from dawn to dusk.

  • However, there were some leisure activities available, such as festivals, fairs, and sports.

  • Festivals and fairs were often held to celebrate religious holidays or important events, such as a royal wedding or a successful harvest.

  • Sports were also popular, with archery, wrestling, and fencing being common pastimes.

  • Hunting was a popular leisure activity among the nobility, and it was often used as a way to display wealth and power.

2.7: Mannerism and Baroque Art

Mannerism

• Mannerism is an artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance period, around the 1520s.

• It is characterized by the distortion of proportions, exaggerated poses, and the use of artificial colors.

• Some of the key characteristics of Mannerism include:

  • Elongated proportions and exaggerated poses

  • Use of artificial colors and lighting

  • Complex compositions and crowded scenes

  • Ambiguous space and perspective

  • Emphasis on intellectual and emotional content

• Some of the key figures of Mannerism include:

  • Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio

    • Pioneer of the Baroque style

    • Master of chiaroscuro

    • Known for his dramatic use of light and shadow

    • Influenced many artists of his time and beyond

  • El Greco

    • Greek artist who worked in Spain

    • Known for his elongated figures and use of vibrant colors

    • Influenced by Byzantine art and Italian Mannerism

    • Considered a precursor to Expressionism

  • Jacopo da Pontormo

    • Florentine painter of the Mannerist style

    • Known for his use of distorted figures and complex compositions

    • Influenced by Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci

    • Worked primarily for the Medici family

  • Rosso Fiorentino

    • Florentine painter of the Mannerist style

    • Known for his use of vivid colors and dynamic compositions

    • Influenced by Michelangelo and Raphael

    • Worked for the court of Francis I in France

  • Parmigianino

    • Italian painter of the Mannerist style

    • Known for his elongated figures and use of perspective

    • Influenced by Correggio and Raphael

    • Created the famous Madonna with the Long Neck painting.

Baroque Art

• Baroque art emerged in the 17th century and is characterized by its dramatic and ornate style. It is known for its use of light and shadow, intense emotions, and grandeur.

• Some of the key characteristics of Baroque art include:

  • Dramatic use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro)

  • Grandeur and opulence

  • Emotional intensity and theatricality

  • Dynamic compositions and movement

  • Use of allegory and symbolism

• Some of the key figures of Baroque art include:

  • Gian Lorenzo Bernini

    • Italian sculptor, architect, and painter

    • Known for his Baroque style

    • Works include the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa and the Baldacchino in St. Peter's Basilica

  • Peter Paul Rubens

    • Flemish Baroque painter

    • Known for his dynamic compositions and emphasis on movement

    • Works include The Descent from the Cross and The Garden of Love

  • Rembrandt van Rijn

    • Dutch painter and etcher

    • Known for his use of light and shadow and his portraits

    • Works include The Night Watch and Self-Portrait with Two Circles

  • Diego Velázquez

    • Spanish Baroque painter

    • Known for his realism and use of light and shadow

    • Works include Las Meninas and The Surrender of Breda

  • Caravaggio

    • Italian Baroque painter

    • Known for his use of chiaroscuro and realism

    • Works include The Calling of Saint Matthew and The Conversion of Saint Paul

2.8: Causation in the Age of Reformation and the Wars of Religion

Religious Factors

• The Reformation was sparked by the dissatisfaction of many Christians with the Catholic Church's practices and doctrines.

• The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the formation of new Protestant denominations.

• The religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants led to a series of wars and conflicts across Europe.

Political Factors

• The rise of nation-states and the decline of feudalism led to a shift in power away from the Catholic Church and towards secular rulers.

• The political ambitions of monarchs and princes often led them to support one side or the other in the religious conflicts of the time.

• The wars of religion were often fought for political gain rather than purely religious reasons.

Social and Economic Factors

• The Renaissance and the rise of humanism led to a questioning of traditional authority and a desire for individual freedom.

• The growth of trade and commerce led to increased wealth and social mobility, which in turn led to greater social and political unrest.

• The wars of religion often had a devastating impact on local economies and societies, leading to further social and economic instability.