23-Religious development and the 'Golden Age' of Elizabethan culture
Religious Development
By 1563, the religious state was broadly positive, with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement largely achieved. However, concerns remained among the clergy about the unformed nature of the Church, and Catholics, though not persecuted, found it difficult to practice their faith publicly. Debates arose over whether the settlement was ‘complete’ or if further reforms were necessary. Puritanism emerged among those who believed the settlement did not go far enough.
Puritanism
During the 1560s and 1570s, Puritanism gained influence as a movement seeking to eradicate ‘popish superstition.’ Its emergence can be traced to the failure of the 1563 Convocation of Canterbury to implement further Church reforms. While some Puritans worked within the framework of the Elizabethan Settlement, others posed a challenge to it.
1566 – Vestiarian Controversy: Archbishop Parker issued the Advertisements, making certain vestments compulsory, angering Puritan ministers, particularly in London. Some ministers refused to comply and lost their positions.
1583 – Whitgift’s Three Articles: Demanded clergy acceptance of:
Royal supremacy
The Prayer Book
The 39 Articles
Few Puritans were willing to break from the Church over these demands.
1595 – Lambeth Articles: Reaffirmed the fundamentally Calvinist beliefs of the Church of England and were acceptable to both Puritans and their opponents.
Vestiarian Controversy
The controversy arose from tensions between Queen Elizabeth, who sought uniformity and obedience, and Puritans, who wanted to eliminate Catholic practices. Some clergy refused to wear vestments outlined in the Act of Uniformity and royal injunctions, believing them to be superstitious.
The Queen dismissed Thomas Sampson from his post at Christ Church, Oxford, for refusing to wear required vestments.
In 1566, Archbishop Parker and five bishops issued the Advertisements, enforcing uniformity in clerical dress and sacraments.
37 London clergymen refused to comply and lost their positions.
This controversy highlighted Elizabeth’s determination to enforce the settlement while reformist bishops struggled between obeying royal supremacy and removing Catholic remnants from the Church.
Presbyterian Movement
A subset of Puritanism, Presbyterianism sought further reform in Church governance, influenced by Calvinist ideas. It emerged partly in reaction to the Vestiarian Controversy and questioned the authority of bishops.
1572 – Admonitions to Parliament: John Field and Thomas Wilcox published criticisms of the Book of Common Prayer, calling for the abolition of bishops.
1583 – Whitgift’s Three Articles: Some Presbyterians refused to conform.
1584 & 1587 – Parliamentary Attempts: Peter Turner and Anthony Cope attempted to introduce bills replacing the Book of Common Prayer with a more Puritan version, but both failed.
Late 1580s Decline:
Rejection of Cope’s proposals in Parliament showed reform was unlikely.
Whitgift’s crackdown weakened Presbyterianism, treating moderates and radicals alike.
John Field’s death in 1589 and the satirical Marprelate Tracts damaged its reputation.
Although geographically limited (London, Essex, Cambridge, Suffolk, and the East Midlands), it gained support from figures like the Earl of Leicester and Lord Burghley, who saw it as a counterbalance to Catholic influence.
Whitgift’s Articles and Attack on Presbyterianism
Archbishop Whitgift sought to destroy Presbyterianism. He issued Three Articles demanding clergy acceptance of:
Royal supremacy
The Prayer Book as containing nothing ‘contrary to the Word of God’
The 39 Articles as scripturally sound
The second article caused a crisis of conscience for many clergy. Under pressure from Leicester and Walsingham, Whitgift softened it to require only general acceptance of the Prayer Book.
His campaign had some success:
He forced Burghley’s protégé George Gifford out of office.
He denied Thomas Cartwright a preaching license.
However, treating all Puritans as radicals alienated many moderate clergy. By the late 1580s, Presbyterianism was in decline, with few Puritans willing to break with the Church. The failure of Cope’s ‘Bill and Book’ in 1587 further diminished its influence.
Radical Puritans (Separatists)
Separatists represented the most extreme Puritan faction, believing the Church of England was beyond reform and advocating for independent congregations. They rejected Elizabeth’s authority as Supreme Governor.
1580s – Movement Emerges: Robert Browne led a Separatist congregation in Norwich but later went into exile in the Netherlands. He returned in 1585 and reconciled with the authorities.
London Separatists: Henry Barrow and John Greenwood led a small movement.
1593 – Act Against Seditious Sectaries: Made membership in Separatist sects illegal. Barrow, Greenwood, and John Penry were executed for circulating seditious books.
The Decline of Puritanism
By the late 1580s, Puritan influence waned due to:
The deaths of key political supporters (Leicester, Mildmay, and Walsingham).
The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, reducing fears of Catholic influence.
The decline of Presbyterianism, making moderate Puritanism more acceptable within the Church.
The fundamentally Calvinist nature of the Church of England was reaffirmed in the Lambeth Articles (1595), which satisfied both Puritans and figures like Whitgift. The 1559 Book of Common Prayer was ultimately accepted as the standard form of worship.
Catholicism
Elizabeth initially adopted a pragmatic approach to Catholics, avoiding aggressive persecution. While recusancy fines existed, they were rarely enforced, and Catholics were tolerated if they outwardly conformed.
1559 Act of Supremacy: Required an oath of loyalty; only one Catholic bishop conformed.
Recusants: Many Catholics conformed outwardly but practiced their faith in secret. Some Catholic intellectuals went into exile, while others served as private chaplains to noble families.
1569 Northern Rebellion: A Catholic-led uprising increased suspicion of Catholic loyalty.
1570 Papal Bull (Excommunication of Elizabeth): Pope Pius V called for Elizabeth’s deposition, forcing English Catholics to choose between loyalty to their faith or their monarch.
The Penal Laws Against Catholics
A series of increasingly severe laws were passed in response to Catholic threats:
1571 Act: Made publishing papal bulls treasonable.
1581 Act to Retain the Queen’s Majesty’s Subjects in their Due Obedience:
Non-allegiance to the Queen or Church of England became treason.
Saying Mass was punishable by fines and imprisonment.
Recusancy fines increased to £20 per month.
15 Catholic priests executed in 1581-82.
1585 Act Against Jesuits and Seminary Priests:
Made it treasonable for priests ordained under the Pope to enter England.
Led to the execution of 123 priests from 1586-1603.
These laws were complemented by financial penalties—by 1587, recusants who failed to pay fines risked losing two-thirds of their estate. Persecution peaked between 1588-1592 due to worsening relations with Catholic Spain and fears of rebellion.
Catholic Missions and Jesuits
1568 – Douai College Established: Trained priests to be sent to England. By 1575, 11 had arrived.
1580 – Jesuit Priests Arrive: Led by Robert Parsons and Edmund Campion (executed in 1581).
Limited Success: Catholic missions primarily supported the gentry. The faith became a ‘country-house religion’ rather than a widespread movement.
How Successful Was Elizabeth in Maintaining a Unified Church of England?
In the early years, Elizabeth aimed to win over English Catholics through compromise. Public Mass was banned, but private worship was largely ignored. By maintaining certain traditional ceremonies, she hoped to make the new Church acceptable to most.
However, pressure from both Puritans and Catholics led to increasing enforcement of conformity. While Puritan influence declined by the 1590s, Catholicism persisted, though as a minority faith.
Additionally, Ambrose Dudley, brother of Robert Dudley, was a staunch Puritan and may have influenced Elizabeth.