ANP1105 CnT

Page 10: Anatomy

Anatomy includes terminology fundamental for the study and understanding of the body's structures. Key terms are Observation (examining the body), Manipulation (examining by moving parts), Palpation (examining by feeling), and Auscultation (examining by listening).

The study of anatomy is categorized into Gross Anatomy, which can be Systemic (studying organ systems), Regional (studying specific regions), and Surface Anatomy (study of external features). Meanwhile, Microscopic Anatomy can be divided into Histology (study of tissues) and Cytology (study of cells), along with basic concepts in Developmental Anatomy.

Page 11: Physiology

Physiology focuses on the function of different bodily structures and systems. This includes a thorough examination of organ systems as focal points of interest. Studying physiology emphasizes understanding cellular and molecular events that contribute to overall bodily functions, governed by physical and chemical principles.

Page 12: Relationship of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are interconnected through the Principle of Complementarity, meaning that the structure of a body part is intrinsically linked to its function. For example, the structure of the heart (anatomy) is designed specifically to pump blood (function), showcasing that structure influences function, and vice versa.

Page 13: Levels of Structural Organization at uOttawa

The human body is organized in a hierarchical manner that outlines different levels of complexity: starting from Atom, Molecule, and Organelle, progressing to Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, and finally Organism. An example given includes a smooth muscle cell within the cardiovascular system, illustrating this organization.

Page 14: Necessary Life Functions

This page discusses essential life functions necessary for maintaining life, which include maintaining boundaries (keeping internal environment separate from external), movement (moving substances within the body), responsiveness (reacting to changes), digestion (breaking down food for nutrients), metabolism (chemical processes for energy and growth), excretion (removing waste), reproduction (producing offspring), and growth (increase in size).

Page 15: Cells & Organ Systems

This section offers an overview of the various organ systems, including Digestive, Respiratory, Cardiovascular, and Urinary systems, detailing their functions. Interstitial fluid is emphasized as a vital component that facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between blood plasma and cells, essential for cell survival.

Page 16: Integumentary, Skeletal & Muscular Systems

The Integumentary system offers protection via skin, while the Skeletal system provides support and structure to the body. The Muscular system not only enables movement but also plays a critical role in heat production and blood cell formation, showcasing how these systems collaborate for bodily functions.

Page 17: Nervous & Endocrine Systems

Together, the Nervous and Endocrine systems form fast-acting control systems within the body. The Nervous system employs neuronal signals for instant reactions to stimuli, whereas the Endocrine system uses hormones to regulate processes over extended periods, demonstrating complementary roles in body regulation.

Page 18: Cardiovascular & Lymphatic Systems

The Cardiovascular system is responsible for the transport of nutrients and oxygen throughout the body, while the Lymphatic system plays a crucial role in immunity. These systems work together to enhance bodily defense mechanisms by ensuring that essential substances reach their destinations while also facilitating the proper response to pathogen invasion.

Page 19: Respiratory, Digestive & Urinary Systems

Each of these systems performs vital functions: the Respiratory system is essential for gas exchange, allowing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide expulsion; the Digestive system facilitates nutrient absorption by breaking down food; and the Urinary system is key for waste elimination and maintaining body fluid balance, highlighting the interconnectedness of these systems in removing waste and maintaining homeostasis.

Page 20: Reproductive Systems

This page discusses the Reproductive systems, focusing on the roles of mammary glands and prostate in reproduction. These structures contribute to the complex process of human reproduction, emphasizing function specific to gender and reproductive health.

Page 21: Anatomical Variability

A majority of humans share 90% structural alignment; however, minor variations exist among individuals, which are usually compatible with life. This variability showcases the uniqueness of human anatomy while allowing for physiological function among the majority of the population.

Page 22: Anatomical Position

The anatomical position serves as a standard reference point in anatomy. Characteristics of this position include being erect, feet apart, with palms facing forward, which aids in clear communication regarding the location and relationships of body parts.

Page 23: Orientation & Directional Terms

Directional terms such as Superior (above), Inferior (below), Anterior (front), Posterior (back), Medial (toward the middle), Lateral (toward the side), Proximal (closer to point of attachment), Distal (farther from point of attachment), Superficial (closer to the surface), and Deep (further from the surface) are defined and illustrated to give clarity in describing the locations of body structures.

Page 24: Regional Terms

The body is divided into Axial regions (head, neck, and trunk) and Appendicular regions (arms and legs). This classification helps in the precise identification of body parts and their locations.

Page 25: Anterior/Ventral Region Terms

This page lists specific terms corresponding to the anterior (ventral) regions of the body, including Cephalic (head), Orbital (eye), Nasal (nose), and Thoracic (chest), providing definitions for each.

Page 26: Posterior/Dorsal Region Terms

Similar to the anterior terms, this section covers posterior (dorsal) regions like Cephalic (head), Acromial (shoulder), Scapular (shoulder blade), etc. The definitions assist in identifying body parts from a posterior view.

Page 27: Body Planes & Sections

Major body planes, including Median (midline), Frontal (dividing the body into anterior and posterior), and Transverse (dividing the body into superior and inferior sections) are introduced. Visual aids provide clarity on how these planes section the body and identify organs involved in each section.

Page 28: Body Cavities

Major body compartments are categorized into Cranial (encasing the brain), Vertebral (surrounding the spinal cord), Thoracic (housing the heart and lungs), Abdominal, and Pelvic cavities, detailing the organs contained within each.

Page 29: Abdominopelvic Quadrants

The page explains the four quadrants of the abdomen: Left Upper Quadrant, Right Upper Quadrant, Left Lower Quadrant, and Right Lower Quadrant, facilitating reference to areas of abdominal pain or organ locations.

Page 30: Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

Illustrations depict the nine regions of the abdominal area: Right and Left Hypochondriac, Epigastric, Right and Left Lumbar, Umbilical, Right and Left Iliac, and Hypogastric, fostering a comprehensive understanding of anatomical divisions.

Page 31: Body Cavities Exposure

This section differentiates between cavities exposed to the environment, like the oral cavity, and those that are not, such as synovial cavities, emphasizing the anatomical distinctions within body spaces.

Page 32: Cell Theory

The key principles of Cell Theory are defined, stating that cells are the smallest units of life, and all organisms are composed of cells that stem from other cells, establishing a fundamental understanding of biology.

Page 33: Cell Diversity

It is noted that there are trillions of cells within the human body, with over 250 distinct types identified. Each type varies in its structure and function, which is necessary for maintaining diverse bodily functions.

Page 34: General Cell Structure

Key components of a cell include the Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Chromatin, Nuclear envelope, Nucleus, and various Organelles, illustrating the complexity and functionality necessary for cellular activity.

Page 35: Plasma Membrane Function

The plasma membrane serves the critical function of separating the intracellular environment (inside the cell) from the extracellular environment (outside the cell), enabling selective permeability essential for cellular function.

Page 36: Cytoplasm Components

The cytoplasm consists of Cytosol (the fluid part) and Organelles (the structures that perform specific functions), with inclusions varying by cell type, impacting overall cell function.

Page 37: Cytoplasmic Organelles

Organelles are categorized into Nonmembranous ones, such as Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton, and Centrioles, and Membranous ones, which includes Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and Golgi apparatus, each fulfilling crucial roles within the cell.

Page 38: Cellular Components to Know

This page highlights essential structures and their respective functions, including the Plasma membrane's role in protection and Ribosomes in protein synthesis, crucial for cellular activities.

Page 39: Cytoskeleton Components

This portion covers the functional details of three types of Cytoskeleton elements: Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments, and Microtubules. Each plays a specific role in maintaining cell shape, facilitating movement, and aiding in cell division, supported by images for better understanding.

Page 40: Centrosome & Centrioles

Centrosomes and centrioles are discussed regarding their vital roles in cell organization during division and the generation of microtubules, highlighting their importance in cellular architecture and function during the mitotic process.

Page 41: Cellular Extensions

Structures like Cilia (for movement), Flagella (for mobility), and Microvilli (for absorption) are described here, emphasizing their distinct functions and significance in cellular activity.

Page 42: The Nucleus

The nucleus is the control center of the cell containing genomic DNA, with structural components described to underscore its critical role in regulating cellular functions and the overall operation of the cell.

Page 43: Summary of Cellular Components

This page recaps the critical structures found in cells and underscores their significance in facilitating cell function, consolidating knowledge on fundamental cellular architecture.

Page 44: Cell Aging

Various theories surrounding cell aging are discussed, including wear and tear theories, which suggest that damage accumulates over time, and genetic factors that consider how genetics plays a role in the aging process of cells.

Page 45: Interdependence of Body Cells

It emphasizes that all cells within multicellular organisms depend on one another and organ systems for survival, showcasing the importance of collaboration among different cell types to ensure overall functioning of the organism.

Page 46: Tissue Overview

This section defines tissue as a collection of similar cells working together to perform specific functions and introduces histology, the study of tissues, as a branch of anatomy.

Page 47: Primary Tissue Types

Details are provided on four primary types of tissues: Nervous, Muscle, Epithelial, and Connective, along with examples of functions and typical locations within the body, illustrating their diversity and importance.

Page 48: Nervous Tissue

Organizational components of nervous tissue are explored, detailing neurons (the signaling cells) and neuroglia (supporting cells), essential for the functioning of the nervous system.

Page 49: Muscle Tissue Overview

Characteristics of three muscle types are examined: Skeletal (voluntary muscles), Cardiac (heart muscle), and Smooth (involuntary muscles), discussing their unique features and locations.

Page 50: Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

Various forms of epithelial tissues are addressed, focusing on their roles in protection, absorption, and secretion, forming a crucial part of body lining and surfaces.

Page 51: Features of Epithelium

Key characteristics of epithelial tissues are detailed, including Polarity (distinct top and bottom surfaces), Support by connective tissues, Avascular properties (lack of blood vessels), and Regeneration (ability to heal and replace).

Page 52: Classification of Cell Layers

Differences between Simple (one layer) and Stratified (multiple layers) epithelia are discussed, providing a foundation for understanding tissue architecture.

Page 53: Shape of Epithelial Cells

This page details the classification of epithelial cells by shape, including Squamous (flat), Cuboidal (cube-shaped), and Columnar (column-shaped), which have implications for their roles in the body.

Page 54: Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure, functions, and locations of simple squamous epithelium are outlined, noting its presence in areas where passive diffusion occurs, such as in the alveoli of lungs.

Page 55: Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Discusses the features of simple cuboidal epithelium, including its role in secretion and absorption within glands, along with photographic illustrations to aid visualization.

Page 56: Simple Columnar Epithelium

Functions of simple columnar epithelium are highlighted, particularly its roles in absorption and secretion, with specific locations provided for clarity.

Page 57: Pseudostratified Epithelium

Describes the structure of pseudostratified epithelium, emphasizing its function in the respiratory tract, where cilia help in moving mucus and trapped particles.

Page 58: Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Composition, function, and notable locations of stratified squamous epithelium are discussed, including variations such as keratinized and non-keratinized types.

Page 59: Transitional Epithelium

Focuses on the properties and functional flexibility of transitional epithelium, especially in accommodating fluctuations in volume in structures like the bladder.

Page 60: Glandular Epithelium

Differences are brought out between Endocrine (hormone-secreting) and Exocrine (secretion onto surfaces via ducts) glands, outlining their essential functions and examples.

Page 61: Gland Structure

This page explains gland types and structures, detailing how glands are organized based on their secretions and duct structures, providing insight into physiology.

Page 62: Modes of Secretion

Overview of secretory mechanisms such as Merocrine (secretes without losing cellular material), Apocrine (losing part of the cell), and Holocrine (disintegrates completely to release product) is presented.

Page 63: Functions of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues are described to serve various vital functions including binding (holding structures together), protecting (shielding organs), insulating, storing energy, and transporting substances throughout the body.

Page 64: Connective Tissue Characteristics

Traits that distinguish connective tissues from others are discussed, emphasizing their structural diversity and functional capabilities.

Page 65: Connective Tissue Structure

Details on key structures within connective tissues, emphasizing the importance of fibers, ground substances, and cells, are provided to aid in understanding their functions.

Page 66: Connective Tissue Types

Clarification of terms like "blast" (cells that actively produce) and "cyte" (mature cells) is given, which apply to various connective tissues and their developmental stages.

Page 67: Connective Tissue Proper

Sections on Connective Tissue Proper outline categories of Loose and Dense connective tissues alongside their subtypes and functions.

Page 68: Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar

Areolar connective tissue properties and supportive roles are examined, showcasing its importance in binding tissue layers together and providing elasticity.

Page 69: Loose Connective Tissue: Adipose

Discussion on adipose tissue covers its roles, including energy storage and thermal insulation, detailing both white and brown fat functions in the body.

Page 70: Loose Connective Tissue: Reticular

Characteristics and significance of reticular connective tissue in supporting lymphatic and blood cells are detailed, emphasizing its structural role in organs.

Page 71: Dense Regular Connective Tissue

This section focuses on the orientation of collagen fibers found in dense regular connective tissue, explaining how its structure aids in resisting tensile strength and stress.

Page 72: Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Details about dense irregular connective tissue highlight its functionality in resisting multi-directional tension, with applications explained through anatomical contexts.

Page 73: Elastic Connective Tissue

The properties of elastic connective tissue that enable high elasticity are discussed, alongside examples of where such tissues can be found within the body.

Page 74: Cartilage

Focus on cartilage covers its structure, types (Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage), and the role of the matrix in providing flexibility and support for different body structures.

Page 75: Bone (Osseous) Tissue

This section details the functions and structural features of bone tissue, highlighting the role of osteocytes in bone maintenance and health within the skeletal system.

Page 76: Blood

Blood is presented as an atypical connective tissue, with its types explained, focusing on its functional role in transporting gases, nutrients, and wastes throughout the body.

Page 77: Embryonic Development

An overview of tissue origin is provided, including how different germ layers contribute to the development and fates of tissues in embryonic stages.

Page 78: Connective Tissues Classification

A comparative analysis of various connective tissues, emphasizing their components and functions, is detailed to reinforce understanding of tissue characteristics.

Page 79: Covering & Lining Membranes

Describes the composition and types of membranes present in the body, illustrating each's significance in providing barrier functions and facilitating interaction with the environment.

Page 80: Tissue Repair Process

The tissue repair process encompasses three stages: Inflammation (initial response), Organization (restoration), and Regeneration (final healing), providing detailed mechanisms of how each phase contributes to the healing process.