AP Government Final
Foundations
Natural rights: Life, liberty, property, happiness.
Popular sovereignty: Authority rests with the people.
Republicanism: Government's authority from the people.
Social Contract: People obey laws in exchange for rights protection; can change government if it fails.
Types of Democracy
Participatory: Emphasizes broad group involvement in policymaking.
Elite: Disproportionate influence of elites on policymaking.
Pluralist: Widespread political participation is essential.
Constitutional Compromises
Virginia Plan: Bicameral legislature with proportional representation.
New Jersey Plan: Unicameral legislature with equal state representation.
Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Bicameral Congress (House based on population, Senate with equal representation).
⅗ Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5ths of a person for representation.
Articles of Confederation Weaknesses & Constitutional Fixes
Taxes: Congress could not collect taxes → Congress given power to levy taxes.
Trade: Congress couldn't regulate trade → Federal government regulates interstate and international trade.
Laws: 9/13 states needed to approve laws → Simple majority in Congress for most laws.
Amendments: All 13 states had to agree → ⅔ of Congress and ¾ of states required.
Executive: No executive branch → President created to enforce laws.
Judiciary: No national courts → Supreme Court and federal court system created.
Powers
Delegated: (\text{e.g., coin money, declare war})
Concurrent: (\text{e.g., levy taxes, borrow money})
Reserved: (\text{e.g., conduct elections, set up schools})
Amending the Constitution
Proposal: By ⅔ vote in both House and Senate or by a national convention called by ⅔ of state legislatures.
Ratification: By ¾ of state legislatures or by ¾ of special state ratifying conventions.
Types of Federalism
Dual Federalism: Separate spheres for state and national government.
Cooperative Federalism: States and national government work together.
Fiscal Federalism: Federal funds influence state policy.
New Federalism: Shift power back to the states.
Categorical Grants: Specific purposes with tight federal control.
Block Grants: Broad policy areas, states have flexibility.
Articles of the Constitution
I: Legislative branch.
II: Executive branch.
III: Judicial branch.
IV: Relations among the states.
V: Process for amending the Constitution.
VI: Supremacy of Constitution, national debt.
VII: Ratification.
Federalism
Advantages: Policy diversity, local responsiveness, increased participation, prevents tyranny.
Disadvantages: Inequity, varying goals, inefficiency, conflicts, uneven distribution of funds.
Legislative Branch
Senate: 6-year terms, 2 per state, 100 members, 30+ years old, filibuster common.
House: 2-year terms, based on population, 435 members, 25+ years old, Speaker is powerful.
Powers of Congress
⅔ vote needed for: Treaty ratification, Amendment proposal, Impeachment conviction.
Impeachment: House (majority), Trial: Senate (⅔).
Revenue bills originate in the House.
Treaties are approved by the Senate (⅔).
Powers: Lay taxes, declare war, raise army.
Article 1, Section 8: Powers of the legislative branch.
Article 1, Section 9: Powers denied to Congress.
To override a veto: ⅔ vote in Congress.
To confirm a cabinet member: Majority vote in the Senate.
Legislative Processes
Committee consideration after bill introduction.
Pork Barrel Legislation: Funds for specific local projects.
Logrolling: Agreement to vote for each other's bills.
Standing Committees: Oversight, Veteran Affairs, Financial Services.
Select/Special Committees: Temporary, specific purpose.
Joint Committees: Members from both houses.
Conference Committee: Reconcile House and Senate bills.
Ways and Means: Taxation bills.
17th Amendment: Senators elected by citizens.
Spending
Discretionary: Optional, e.g., defense.
Mandatory: Guaranteed, e.g., Social Security, Medicare.
Redistricting
Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries for political advantage.
Redistricting: Redrawing district boundaries.
Reapportionment: Redistributing House seats based on census.
Malapportionment: Unequal district populations.
Executive Branch
Formal Powers: Commander in Chief, pardons, treaties, appointments.
Informal Powers: Executive orders, agreements, signing statements, bully pulpit.
Cabinet: Advises the President.
22nd Amendment: Term limits.
25th Amendment: Presidential succession.
Federalist #70: Strong, unitary executive needed.
Bureaucracy
Implements and regulates government policies.
Discretionary authority due to expertise, gridlock, vague laws.
Pendleton/Civil Service Reform Act: Merit-based system.
Hatch Act: Limits political activity of federal employees.
Bureaucratic Agencies
Cabinet Departments: Broad policy areas, e.g., Department of Defense, Education.
Independent Agencies: Specific issues, e.g., NASA, EPA.
Independent Regulatory Commissions: Regulate economy, e.g., FCC, SEC.
Government Corporations: Services, e.g., USPS, Amtrak.
Checks and Balances
Congress over Bureaucracy: Rewriting laws, appropriations, abolishing agencies.
President over Bureaucracy: Appointments, executive orders, budget.
Iron Triangle: Congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, interest groups.
Issue Network: Fluid, informal relationships.
Judiciary
Lower courts created by Congress.
Federal judges confirmed by Senate.
4 justices needed to hear a case.
Writ of certiorari: Calls up a case.
Amicus Curiae: "Friend of the court" briefs.
Tie: Lower court decision stands.
Judicial Review: Power to determine constitutionality.
Article 3: Establishes judicial branch.
Judiciary Act of 1789: Federal court structure.
Marbury v. Madison: Established judicial review.
Litmus Test: Single issue to evaluate nominees.
Federalist #78: Judiciary is least dangerous branch.
Influences on Judicial Decision Making
Ideology, precedent, stare decisis.
Judicial Activism: Actively shape policy.
Judicial Restraint: Defer to other branches.
Strict Construction: Literal interpretation.
Loose Construction: Flexible interpretation.
Economic Policy
Federal Reserve lower interest rates if unemployment is high.
Dual mandate: Price stability and maximizing employment.
Monetary Policy: Controlled by Federal Reserve.
Fiscal Policy: Created by Congress.
Federal Deficit: Difference between revenues and expenditures.
Civil Liberties/Rights
Civil Liberties: Freedoms government cannot take away.
Civil Rights: Freedom from discrimination.
Amendments
1st: Freedom of expression.
2nd: Right to bear arms.
4th: Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.
5th: Due process, self-incrimination.
6th: Right to fair trial.
8th: Against cruel punishment.
9th: Unenumerated rights.
10th: Powers reserved to states.
14th: Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses.
15th: Right to vote for African Americans.
Landmark Cases
Engel v. Vitale: No mandatory prayer in school.
Wisconsin v. Yoder: Amish can't be forced to attend school.
Schenck v. U.S: Speech can be limited if it presents a clear and present danger.
NYT v US: Strengthened the freedom of the press due to no prior restraint.
McDonald v. Chicago: 2nd Amendment applies to states.
Miranda v. Arizona: Informing rights.
Exclusionary Rule: Illegally obtained can’t be used.
Gideon v. Wainwright: Right to counsel.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Separate but equal is constitutional (overturned by Brown v. Board).
Brown v. Board of Education: Segregation is unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: Eliminate racial discrimination.
Title IX: Gender discrimination is illegal.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: Banned discriminatory voting, literacy test.
Ideologies, Beliefs, and Polling
Tracking Poll: Chart rise/fall in support.
Benchmark Poll: Initial poll.
Exit Poll: Election day.
Straw Poll: Unofficial, unreliable.
Push Poll: Provides negative information.
Rational Choice: Voting based on self-interest.
Political Socialization: Process of acquiring beliefs.
Dealignment: Decline in party loyalty.
Realignment: Shift in preferences.
Internal Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to participate.
External Efficacy: Belief that the system responds.
Amendments
15th: No race restrictions voting.
19th: No gender restrictions voting.
23rd: D.C. residents can vote.
24th: Abolishes poll tax.
26th: 18+ can vote.
Elections
Voter turnout greatest in presidential elections.
States determine voter registration.
Electoral College
Plurality wins votes (except ME, NE).
Majority: Over 50%.
Plurality: Most votes wins.
PACs and Campaign Finance
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002: Banned soft money, limited hard money.
Citizens United v. FEC: Corporations/unions can spend unlimited money.
PAC: Direct contributions, limited amount.
Super PAC: Unlimited money, no coordination.
Journalism
Agenda-setting/gatekeeper: Determines news.
Horse race journalism: Focuses on campaign drama.
Cases
Many listed previously
Foundational Documents
Federalist 10: Factions.
Federalist 51: Checks and balances.
Federalist 70: Strong executive.
Federalist 78: Judicial review.
Brutus 1: Against ratification, federal government too powerful