PSY201 Exam 4

Research Methods in Cognition

• Laboratory Experiments: Controlled settings manipulate cognitive variables to study effects on cognition.

• Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures electrical activity in the brain with high temporal resolution.

• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Tracks blood flow in the brain, offering high spatial resolution.

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Measures metabolic activity in the brain.

• Case Studies (e.g., H.M.): Examination of brain lesions to infer associated cognitive functions.

Brain Structures Relevant to Cognition

• Frontal Lobe: Involved in decision-making, reasoning, and working memory.

• Parietal Lobe: Associated with spatial processing and attention.

• Temporal Lobe: Implicated in memory (hippocampus) and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area).

• Occipital Lobe: Responsible for visual processing.

• Hippocampus: Critical for memory formation.

• Amygdala: Involved in emotional processing and memory.

Top-Down Effects and Heuristics

• Perception Influenced by Context: Past experiences and context affect cognition.

• Cognition: Mental processes for acquiring knowledge, including perception, integration, response, encoding, and recall.

• Schemas: Help in organizing and processing information; they can be beneficial (e.g., understanding common situations) but may also limit perspectives (e.g., gender stereotypes).

• Script: A schema dictating behavior within a specific context.

• Stereotype: Preconceived cognitive frameworks for processing information about others based on group membership.

Mental Representations

• Analogical Representations: Physical characteristics resemble what they represent (e.g., no-smoking signs).

• Symbolic Representations: Abstract ideas (e.g., mathematical equations).

• Mental Rotation: Ability to rotate mental images, crucial for spatial cognition.

Mental Rotation Lab

• Transformational Equivalence Principle: Mental transformations follow the same rules as physical transformations.

  • Key Findings:

    • Reaction times increase with the angle of rotation.

    • Suggests gradual information processing as rotations increase.

Concept Formation Models

• Attributes Model: Emphasizes specific features needed to identify objects; limitations due to flexible categorization (e.g., "game").

• Prototype Model: Each category has a best example (prototype).

• Exemplar Model: All category members are examples that determine category membership.

Organization of Concepts

• Hierarchical Models: Sort concepts into broader categories and subcategories to enhance understanding and retrieval.

  • Superordinate Level: Broad categories (e.g., Animal)

  • Basic Level: Commonly used categories (e.g., Dog)

  • Subordinate Level: Specific categories (e.g., Golden Retriever)

Decision-Making and Reasoning

• Algorithms: Systematic guidelines yielding correct answers.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts to simplify decision-making, though they may lead to biases.

• Effects of Categorization: Simplifies reasoning but may cause biases (e.g., stereotyping).

• Availability Heuristic: Making decisions based on immediate examples that come to mind.

• Representativeness Heuristic: Categorizing based on similarity to prototypes.

Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off

• In Problem Solving and Decision Making: Balancing quick decisions with accuracy ensures effective responses.

• Cognitive Process in Decisions: Often influenced by heuristics; quick decisions tend to increase risk of errors.

Stereotype Threat and Socioeconomic Status

• Cognitive Effects: Stereotype threat can diminish performance among individuals affected by negative stereotypes.

• SES Impact: Cognitive abilities can vary significantly based on educational and environmental factors affecting test scores and intelligence.

Creativity and Unconscious Processing

• Creativity: Involves divergent thinking and requires knowledge, motivation, and a conducive environment.

• Unconscious Processing: Can facilitate creativity and problem-solving; influences judgment and decision-making.

Metacognition and Language

• Metacognition: Awareness of cognitive processes enhances strategy improvement.

• Language Structures: Various components, including phonemes and morphemes; distinctions between surface and deep structures.

• Aphasia: Disorders impacting language understanding and production, affecting comprehension abilities.

• Broca’s Area: Associated with speech production.

Intelligence Testing and Factors Affecting Intelligence

• Psychometric Tests: Assess intelligence across settings (e.g., Stanford-Binet, Wechsler scales).

• Validating IQ Tests: Cultural biases persist, influencing test accuracy and representation in various populations.

• Multiple Intelligences: Gardner’s theory of different independent intelligences.

• Environmental and Biological Factors: Both nature and nurture significantly shape intelligence and cognitive outcomes.