Anatomy: study of the shape and structure of the human body

Physiology: the study of how living things function

Planes and body directions: used to describe the relation to the body (up, down, left, right, etc.)

Anatomical position: standing erect, feet together, palms facing forward.

Body planes: imaginary lines that divide the whole body into sections.

Types of planes:

-sagittal plane: vertical plane dividing from front to back

-Midsagittal plane: divides equally into 2 parts, right and left halves.

-Horizontal/transverse: divides into upper/lower halves

-Frontal/coronal plane: anterior/posterior portion, slice face in half.

Structural units/organization levels of the body:

1.        Cells

2.        Tissues

3.        Organs

4.        Body systems

Tissue types:

1.        Epithelial tissue

2.        Muscle tissue

3.        Connective tissue

4.        Nerve tissue

Body systems: a group of organs working together to perform a major function

Body cavities:

-Dorsal cavity: back/posterior

-Ventral cavity: front/posterior

Body regions:

-Axial division: head, neck trunk

-Appendicular region: arms, legs, appendicular

Cells are - basic units of structure

·      Term for specialization of cells is differentiation

·      Many types of cells each with a purpose

Cell membrane – surrounds the cell body & serves two purposes

Structural:

·      Separates the contacts

·      Maintains its shape

·      Protects the cell

Semipermeable:

·      Allows nutrients to pass and waste products to leave. Ex. Tea bag

Cytoplasm: gel-like fluid inside cell mostly made up of water

Organelles: modify, store & transport proteins – dispose of cellular wastes

Nucleus: “control center”

·      Directs metabolic activities

·      Every cell – complete set of chromosomes

·      Chromosomes contain DNA & RNA – 2 chemicals that make genetic info

NOTE: mature red blood cells do not have a nucleus

Stem cells: immature unspecialized cells

·      Embryonic

·      Adult

Epithelial tissues: external (skin), internal (body surfaces, mouth and intestines)

Muscle tissues: voluntary (arms and legs) and involuntary (heart, lungs, eyes, etc)

Connective tissue: fat, tendons, ligaments, bone, cartilage, blood and lymph

Nerve tissue: brain, spinal cord, nerves

Organs:

·      formed when several types of tissue form a group

·      organs perform a single function

·      contains each 4 types of tissue: nerve, connective, muscle, epithelial

Chapter 7:

Physiology is the study of how living things
function

There are 10 body systems

206 bones in the human body

For descriptive purposes, the skeleton is
divided into:
-axial skeletal system
-appendicular skeletal system

Axial Skeleton:

Consists of the skull, spinal column, ribs,
and sternum
Its function is to protect the major organs of
the nervous, respiratory, and circulatory
systems

Appendicular Skeleton
- Consists of the upper extremities and
shoulder girdle plus the lower extremities and
pelvic girdle= arms, legs & pelvis
- It protects the organs of digestion and
reproduction

Bone

It consists of an organic component (the
cells and matrix) and an inorganic
(mineral) component
-The minerals, mainly calcium and phosphate,
give rigidity to bone
-These minerals stored in bone also act as a
mineral reservoir to maintain essential blood
mineral concentrations in times of inadequate
supply in the body

The Periosteum

Definition: A specialized connective tissue
covering all bones of the body

It is responsible for the life of the bone and
is capable of repair

The inner layer is loose connective tissue
containing osteoblasts osteo means bone,

Kinds of Bones

There are 2 kinds of bone:
-Compact bone
Hard, dense, and very strong
It forms the outer layer of bone, where it is needed
for strength
- Cancellous bone
Lighter in weight, but not as strong as compact
bone
It is found in the interior of bones

Trabeculae:

Bony spicules in cancellous bone that form
a mesh of intercommunicating spaces filled
with bone marrow
Appear as a weblike structure on
radiographs

Bone Marrow

Inside the spaces of cancellous bone are two
types of bone marrow
- Red marrow
• Filled with blood vessels
• Makes red and white blood cells and platelets

-Yellow marrow
• Contains mainly fat cells
• Found primarily in the shafts of long bones

Cartilage:

It is found where bones join together

In addition to the ends of bone, cartilage
gives form to the nose and ears

Joints

Areas where two bones come together

-Three basic types of joints:
Fibrous: Do not move; Example- sutures of the
skull
- Cartilaginous: Made of connective tissue and
cartilage; Example- joints between bones of the
vertebrae
-Synovial: Movable joints, account for most of the
joints in the body; Example- temporomandibular
joint (TMJ) of the jaw and gomphosis
(attachments of teeth to sockets that allow some
movement of teeth)

2| Muscular System (Muscles)

Gives us the ability to stand, walk, run, jump,
move our eyes, smile, and frown

It is composed of more than 600 individual
muscles

Types of Muscles

Striated muscle
-Named because dark and light bands in the muscle
fibers give a striped, or striated, appearance
- Known as skeletal or voluntary muscle. Striated=Skeletal=Voluntary (SSV)
-Attached to the bones of the skeleton; makes bodily
motion possible

 Smooth muscle
-Moves internal organs with slow contractions, such as the
digestive tract, blood vessels, and secretion ducts leading
from glands
- Known as visceral or involuntary muscle

 Cardiac muscle
-Striated in appearance but resembles smooth muscle in
action

Muscle Function

Contraction = tightening of a muscle, it gets shorter and thicker

Relaxation = when a muscle returns to its
original form or shape

Muscle origin
-The place where the muscle begins (originates)
-This is the more fixed attachment

Muscle insertion
-The place where the muscle ends (inserts)
-It is the more movable end

Cardiovascular system

-Consists of the following:
-Circulatory system
Heart
-Lymphatic system

Circulatory system

The two primary functions of the circulatory
system are:
-Transporting oxygen and nutrients to the cells and
transporting carbon dioxide and waste products
from the cells, as well as transporting hormones
and antibodies throughout the body
- Regulating body temperature and chemical
stability

Heart

The heart is a hollow muscle with four
chambers

The pericardium

The heart is enclosed in a double-walled
membranous sac known as the pericardium

Heart Chambers

The heart functions as a double pump
Each side is subdivided into an:
Atria= upper chamber- receive blood
Ventricles= lower chambers- pump blood

Heart Valves

One-way valves prevent the backflow

Blood Vessels

-Arteries = large blood vessels that carry
blood away from the heart to all regions of the
body
-Capillaries = microscopic vessels that
connect the arterial and venous systems
- Veins = a low-pressure collecting system to
return the waste-filled blood to the heart

Blood and blood cells

Red blood cells= Erythrocytes

White blood cells=Leukocytes

Lymphatic System

The structures of the lymphatic system are:
-Lymph vessels
-Lymph nodes
- Lymph fluid
-Lymphoid organs

Lymph Nodes

They fight disease by producing antibodies

Major lymph node sites of the body include:
- Cervical (in the neck)
-Axillary (under the arms)
-Inguinal (in the lower abdomen)
-Lymph fluid

Lymphoid Organs

Tonsils – masses of lymphatic tissue located in the upper portions of the nose and throat

Spleen- filters microorganisms

Nervous system

The nervous system is the communication
system of the body

Central nervous system (CNS) = B+SC
-The brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- The cranial nerves and the spinal nerves

2 divisions:

• Autonomic system = unconscious activities
 sympathetic (ex. ‘fight or flight’ response)

• Somatic system = conscious activities

Neurons

Three types of neurons:
- Sensory neurons
- Motor neurons
-Associative neurons

The basic function of neurons is to direct
communication or nerve impulses

A synapse is the space between two neurons

A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance
that allows the impulse to jump across the
synapse from one neuron to another

Central Nervous System

Brain

Spinal cord (affects the limbs)

Peripheral Nervous System

-The autonomic nervous system controls
unconscious activities such as breathing,
heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure,
and pupil size

-The somatic nervous system controls
conscious activities such as walking

Respiratory system

Delivers oxygen to the millions of cells in
the body and transports the waste product
carbon dioxide out of the body

Pharynx

After passing through the nasal cavity, air
reaches the pharynx, which is commonly
known as the throat

-It is basically a tube that connects the
nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and
esophagus

Epiglottis

During swallowing, the epiglottis acts as a
lid and covers the larynx so that food does
not enter the lungs

Larynx ( voice box)

The largest cartilage forms the prominent
projection in front of the neck, called the
“Adam’s apple”

Lungs

The trachea divides into two branches
called bronchi

Each bronchus leads to a lung, where it divides
and subdivides into increasingly smaller branches;
bronchioles are the smallest of these branches

Alveoli are tiny grapelike clusters found at
the end of each bronchiole
-Exchange of gases between the lungs and the
blood takes place in the alveoli

Digestive system

The role of the digestive system is to provide
the body with the nutrients, water, and
electrolytes necessary for life

The digestive system functions under
involuntary control

Digestive Process
 Ingestion: Occurs when food is taken into the mouth

Digestion: Begins in the mouth as food is masticated (chew)
with saliva and then swallowed

Movement: Chewed food is subjected to peristalsis,
the rhythmic wavelike contractions that move the food
through the digestive tract

 Absorption: Nutritional elements in the

gastrointestinal tract pass through the lining of the

gastrointestinal tract and into the bloodstream

 Elimination: In the large intestine, solid by-products of
digestion are eliminated from the body in feces
Structures of the Digestive System
-The major structures of the digestive system
are the:
- Mouth
- Pharynx (part of 2 body systems, raspatory and digestive)
-Esophagus
-Stomach
- Small intestine
- large intestine
- Liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

Head and Neck

Facial Bones Cont’d
ZYGOMATIC (2): forms prominence of
cheeks and part of the orbit

 Zygomatic arch= part of temporal bone +
zygomatic bone. Prominence of the cheek-
important landmark for radiographs

Facial Bones Cont’d

 MAXILLARY (2): forms the upper jaw
(maxilla-singular, ae- is plural). Also forms
anterior of hard palate (we will cover more in
depth on palate).

Facial Bones Cont’d
Palatine (2) (not just considered facial bones
but here for ease of learning)

 2 bones that each have: Horizontal &
Vertical plates

 Horizontal plate-form posterior of hard
palate and floor of the nose (MDA Fig 9.7).

Vertical plates- form part of lateral wall of the
nasal cavity and articulate anteriorly with
maxillary bone.

Facial Bones Cont’d
Small Bones of the Face

NASAL (2): forms bridge of the nose- nasal
septum (SEPTUM- separates nostrils) part
of this bone. Articulates with frontal bone

LACRIMAL (2): orbit of eye, inner angle. Lie
directly behind frontal processes of maxillary
bones, very thin bones. Tear ducts lie in the
recess of these bones

VOMER (1): forms the base for the nasal
septum. Single flat bone

Facial Bones Cont’d

NASAL CONCHAE (2): forms part of the
interior of the nose (also formed from the
ethmoid bone); each side of the nose or nasal
cavity has 3 projections that extend inward
from the maxilla, called the nasal conchae
(pl.) (MDA Fig 9.6).

MANDIBLE (1): forms the lower jaw and is
the only movable bone in the skull (we will
cover more in depth on mandible)

Hyoid Bone

does not articulate with any other bone

The hyoid is suspended between the mandible
and the larynx

It functions as a primary support for the tongue
and other muscles

Shaped like a horseshoe