Comprehensive Psychology Exam Review Notes

Foundations & History of Psychology

• Definition of Psychology: The science that studies behaviour and the cognitive/physiological processes underlying it.

• Etymology: Psyche ("soul") + Logos ("the study of").

• Six Major Theoretical Perspectives
  • Behavioural – focus on observable behaviour only.
  • Biological – behaviour explained via brain structures, genetics, biochemical processes.
  • Cognitive – must examine how people acquire, store & process information.
  • Evolutionary – behavioural patterns evolve to solve adaptive problems (natural selection, reproductive success).
  • Humanistic – positive, unique qualities of humans.
  • Psychoanalytic – unconscious motives & early childhood shape personality/disorders.

• Additional Perspectives/Fields
  • Functionalism – psychology should study the functions (purpose) of consciousness (influenced by Darwin).
  • Structuralism – analyse consciousness into basic elements via introspection.
  • Experimental psychology – traditional core (sensation, perception, learning, motivation, emotion).
  • Applied psychology – tackles everyday problems; specializations: clinical, counselling, educational, industrial/organizational.
  • Developmental, Social, Personality, Physiological, Psychometrics, Cognitive = 7 major research areas.

• Key Figures & Contributions
  • Wilhelm Wundt – founded first psych lab; made psychology an independent science; focused on consciousness.
  • John B. Watson – behaviourism; study only what can be verified (behaviour).
  • William James – consciousness is a “stream”; emphasize adaptation (functionalism).
  • Descartes – mind–body dualism; body obeys natural laws, mind is immaterial.
  • Bandura – observational learning (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation).
  • Dutton & Aron – fear-arousal increases attraction (suspension-bridge study).

Goals & Methods of Scientific Psychology

• Three Goals: Measurement/description, understanding/prediction, application/control.

• Five Steps in Scientific Investigation: 1) Formulate hypothesis → 2) Select method/design → 3) Collect data → 4) Analyse & draw conclusions → 5) Report findings.

• Research Designs
  • Experiment – manipulate independent variable (IV) under controlled conditions → observe effect on dependent variable (DV).
  • Descriptive/Correlational – naturalistic observation, case study, survey.
  • Between-subjects – different groups receive different conditions.
  • Within-subjects (mis-labelled in transcript) – subjects serve as own control.

• Key Concepts
  • Independent Variable – condition manipulated.
  • Dependent Variable – outcome measured.
  • Operational Definition – exact operations used to measure/control a variable.
  • Confounding / Extraneous Variable – varies with IV & can contaminate DV.
  • Experimenter Bias – researcher expectations influence outcome (solution: double-blind).
  • Sampling Bias – sample not representative of target population.
  • Random Assignment – every participant has equal chance of any condition.

• Data & Statistics
  • Descriptive – organise/summarise data (mean, median, mode, variability, standard deviation s = \sqrt{\frac{\sum (x_i-\bar{x})^2}{N-1}}).
  • Inferential – interpret data & draw conclusions; statistical significance = low probability findings due to chance (p<.05 typical).
  • Correlation – variables related; coefficient r from -1 \rightarrow +1 (strength increases predictive power); negative vs positive correlation; correlation ≠ causation.
  • Skewed Distributions – negative skew: tail on low-score side, high scores pile up.

• Critical Thinking & Scientific Advantages
  • Clarity, precision; relative intolerance of error; evidence-based decision-making.

Biopsychology: Neurons, Neurotransmitters & Brain Structure

• Neurons: cells that receive, integrate, transmit info.
  • Dendrites – receive.
  • Soma – cell body & nucleus.
  • Axon – long fibre transmitting impulses; obeys all-or-nothing law.
  • Myelin Sheath – insulation, speeds conduction.
  • Terminal Buttons – release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft.
  • Synaptic Vesicles – sacs storing chemicals.
  • Synapse – junction between neurons; postsynaptic neuron receives.
  • Resting Potential -70\text{ mV}; Action Potential – rapid polarity shift; Absolute Refractory Period – new AP impossible.
  • Threshold – minimal intensity to trigger AP.

• Glia Cells: structural support, nourishment, myelin production, waste removal.

• Neurotransmitters (≈9 “classic” + ≥40 neuropeptides)
  • Monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin.
  • Glutamate – major excitatory, learning & memory.
  • Endorphins – endogenous opiates (pain control, pleasure).
  • Morphine/opiates mimic endorphins (agonists).
  • Agonist – mimics NT; Antagonist – blocks NT.

• Nervous System Organisation
  • CNS – brain & spinal cord.
  • PNS: Somatic (SNS – voluntary muscles) & Autonomic (ANS – involuntary).
  ◦ Sympathetic – fight-or-flight, mobilises resources.
  ◦ Parasympathetic – conserves resources.
  • Afferent Nerve Fibres – carry info to CNS; Efferent – from CNS to periphery.

• Brain Structures • Hindbrain – medulla, pons, cerebellum (vital functions, coordination). • Midbrain – vision/hearing reflexes; reticular formation (sleep, arousal, pain). • Forebrain – thalamus (sensory relay except smell), hypothalamus (hunger, thirst, temp), limbic system [amygdala, hippocampus] “seat of emotion”, cerebrum/cortex. • Cerebral Cortex Lobes

  1. Occipital – vision.

  2. Parietal – touch, spatial awareness.

  3. Temporal – auditory; damage → speech/language deficits.

  4. Frontal – motor control, speech, higher functions.
     • Corpus Callosum – thick fibre band joining hemispheres; split-brain surgery severs it.
     • Brain Plasticity – structural/functional change; Neurogenesis – new neuron formation; Synaptic Pruning – elimination of inactive synapses.

• Measurement Techniques
  • EEG – electrical activity via scalp electrodes.
  • EMG (muscle), EOG (eyes).
  • fMRI – blood-flow for function.
  • ESB – electrical stimulation.
  • Lesioning – destroy tissue to study loss of function.

• Hormonal & Genetic Bases
  • Endocrine System – glands secrete hormones (melatonin regulates sleep).
  • Chromosomes (DNA strands); Genes = hereditary segments.
  • Dominant/Recessive expression; Phenotype – observable; Genotype – genetic blueprint.
  • Twin & adoption studies for heritability.
  • Natural Selection – heritable traits ↑ survival; Inclusive Fitness = own reproduction + relatives’.
  • Adaptations = inherited solutions; Behavioural genetics explores gene–behaviour link.

Sensation & Perception

• Key Terms
  • Sensation – stimulation of sense organs.
  • Perception – selection, organisation & interpretation of sensory input.
  • Absolute Threshold; Just Noticeable Difference (JND).
  • Signal Detection Theory – hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection.
  • Sensory Adaptation – reduced sensitivity to constant stimulus.

• Vision
  • Bottom-Up vs Top-Down Processing.
  • Feature Analysis – assemble elements into complex forms.
  • Figure-Ground segregation; Gestalt Laws (proximity, closure, continuity, simplicity, similarity, subjective contours).
  • Depth Perception – binocular (retinal disparity, convergence) & monocular cues (pictorial depth, motion parallax).
  • Trichromatic & Opponent-Process theories; Colour After-images; Lateral Antagonism enhances contrast.
  • Near-sightedness (myopia) – distant blurry; Far-sightedness (hyperopia) – close blurry.
  • Reversible Figures; Illusions (e.g., subjective contours).

• Audition & Other Senses
  • Sound Waves: Frequency (Hz), Amplitude (dB), Purity (timbre).
  • Auditory Pathway – external (air), middle (ossicles), inner ear (fluid/cochlea → neural).
  • Olfactory (smell) & Gustatory (taste) systems also undergo adaptation.

Learning & Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US) → Unconditioned Response (UR).
  • Neutral stimulus becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → Conditioned Response (CR).
  • Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Renewal Effect, Stimulus Generalisation, Stimulus Discrimination, Stimulus Contiguity (events occur together).
  • Conditioned Taste Aversion – single-trial learning (e.g., illness after apple).
  • Instinctive Drift – animal’s innate tendencies interfere.

• Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
  • Behaviour controlled by consequences; Skinner Box + Cumulative Recorder.
  • Reinforcement ↑ response; Punishment ↓ response.
  ◦ Positive Reinforcement – present desirable.
  ◦ Negative Reinforcement – remove aversive.
  • Schedules of Reinforcement
  ◦ Fixed-Interval – first response after set time.
  ◦ Variable-Ratio – reinforce after variable number (most resistant to extinction).
  • Discriminative Stimuli – cues indicating reinforcement availability ("Please pass the salt" example).
  • Behaviour Modification Program (5 steps: target → baseline → design → execute/evaluate → terminate).

• Observational Learning – learn by watching others (Bandura: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation).

Memory

• Processes: Encoding (forming code), Storage (maintaining), Retrieval (recovering).

• Acquisition – initial learning stage.

• Memory Consolidation – stabilising memory traces (often during sleep).

• Amnesia
  • Retrograde – loss of pre-injury memories.
  • Anterograde – cannot form new memories post-injury.

• Seven Sins (Schacter): Transience, Absent-mindedness, Blocking, Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, Persistence.

• Critical Period – birth–age 3: heightened neural plasticity.

Consciousness, Sleep & Drugs

• Consciousness – awareness of internal/external stimuli; includes controlled vs automatic processing, inattentional blindness, lucid dreams.

• Circadian Rhythm – 24-hr biological clock; regulated by light & melatonin.

• Sleep Architecture
  • Cycle: Stage 1 → Stage 2 → Stage 3/4 (slow wave) → REM; ~90 min cycles; 4–5 repeats/night; first REM few min, later REM 40–60 min.
  • Hypnotic Jerks – muscle contractions in Stage 1.
  • Nightmares (REM) vs Night Terrors (NREM panic).
  • Day Residue – waking concerns enter dreams.

• Drug Classes & Effects
  1) Narcotics (opiates) 2) Sedatives 3) Stimulants 4) Hallucinogens 5) Cannabis 6) Alcohol 7) MDMA 8) "Psychoactive" umbrella term.
  • Physical Dependence & Withdrawal; Alcohol/drugs disrupt sleep.
  • Endorphins & Morphine show opiate mechanisms.

Motivation & Emotion

• Limbic System (“seat of emotion”) – amygdala (fear/anger), hippocampus (memory).

• Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathway – reward circuitry.

• Dutton & Aron – misattribution of arousal increases attraction (fear bridge).

• Phobia – irrational fear (classical conditioning model).

Social Psychology & Applied Topics

• Interpersonal Behaviour – governed by social forces; topics include attraction, attitudes, conformity, etc.

• Halo Effect – overall evaluation spills into specific traits.

• Response Set – tendency to answer in unrelated manner.

• Deception in Research – sometimes essential; must debrief.

• Effective Critical Thinking – evidence-based judgement.

Development, Personality & Individual Differences

• Developmental Psychology – life-span changes.

• Personality Psychology – consistency in behaviour; psychometrics measures it.

• Positive Psychology – study of positive, adaptive, creative experiences.

Key Statistical & Methodological Terms (Quick Reference)

• Population vs Sample; Participants; Data-Collection Techniques (observation, tests, surveys).

• Variability, Standard Deviation, Correlation Coefficient r.

• Over-extrapolation – unwarranted projection beyond data.

• Anecdotal Evidence – personal stories; often inaccurate.

Miscellaneous High-Yield Concepts

• Brain Plasticity, Synaptic Pruning, Neurogenesis – ongoing changes.

• Biological Rhythms – internal clocks beyond sleep (hormonal cycles).

• Fight-or-Flight – sympathetic ANS arousal.

• Instinctive Drift & Adaptive Behaviour – evolutionary constraints on learning.

• Top-Down vs Bottom-Up – whole→parts vs parts→whole.

• Subjective Contours – perceive edges without gradients.

• Stimulus (distal vs proximal) – external vs energies on receptors.

These bullet-point notes integrate every term, example and concept from the transcript, expanding definitions, linking to foundational theories, real-world relevance and key methodological principles to serve as a complete study replacement for the source material.

Foundations & History of Psychology

• Definition of Psychology: The scientific study of behaviour and the cognitive/physiological processes that underlie it, encompassing both overt actions and internal mental states and biological functions.

• Etymology: Derived from the Greek words Psyche ("soul" or "mind") and Logos ("the study of"), reflecting its historical roots in philosophical inquiry into the human mind.

• Six Major Theoretical Perspectives
  

  • Behavioural – Focuses exclusively on observable behaviour and how it is learned through environmental interactions, rejecting the study of unobservable mental states.
  

  • Biological – Explains behaviour, thoughts, and feelings through the lens of brain structures, genetics, and biochemical processes within the nervous and endocrine systems.
  

  • Cognitive – Emphasises the study of mental processes, asserting that to understand behaviour, one must examine how people acquire, store, retrieve, and process information.
  

  • Evolutionary – Proposes that behavioural patterns and cognitive processes have evolved over generations because they helped our ancestors solve adaptive problems, leading to natural selection and enhanced reproductive success.
  

  • Humanistic – Stresses the inherent goodness, unique qualities, and potential for growth within humans, focusing on self-actualisation and free will.
  

  • Psychoanalytic – Posits that unconscious motives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences significantly shape personality, abnormal behaviour, and psychological disorders.

• Additional Perspectives/Fields
  

  • Functionalism – An early school of thought, influenced by Darwin, arguing that psychology should study the functions or purposes of consciousness and behaviour, rather than just its structure.
  

  • Structuralism – An early school of thought, championed by Wundt and Titchener, aiming to analyse consciousness into its basic elements (sensations, feelings, images) through introspection.
  

  • Experimental psychology – Refers to the traditional core areas of psychological research, including sensation, perception, learning, motivation, and emotion, often studied using rigorous scientific methods.
  

  • Applied psychology – Involves the practical application of psychological principles to solve everyday problems; specializations include clinical (diagnosing/treating disorders), Counselling (assisting with personal/vocational issues), educational (improving schooling), and industrial/organizational (optimising workplace behaviour and productivity).
  

  • Developmental, Social, Personality, Physiological, Psychometrics, Cognitive = These are seven major research areas alongside experimental psychology.

• Key Figures & Contributions
  

  • Wilhelm Wundt – Regarded as the

Foundations & History of Psychology

• Definition of Psychology: The scientific study of behaviour and the cognitive/physiological processes that underlie it, encompassing both overt actions and internal mental states and biological functions.

• Etymology: Derived from the Greek words Psyche ("soul" or "mind") and Logos ("the study of"), reflecting its historical roots in philosophical inquiry into the human mind.

• Six Major Theoretical Perspectives
  

  • Behavioural – Focuses exclusively on observable behaviour and how it is learned through environmental interactions, rejecting the study of unobservable mental states.
  

  • Biological – Explains behaviour, thoughts, and feelings through the lens of brain structures, genetics, and biochemical processes within the nervous and endocrine systems.
  

  • Cognitive – Emphasises the study of mental processes, asserting that to understand behaviour, one must examine how people acquire, store, retrieve, and process information.
  

  • Evolutionary – Proposes that behavioural patterns and cognitive processes have evolved over generations because they helped our ancestors solve adaptive problems, leading to natural selection and enhanced reproductive success.
  

  • Humanistic – Stresses the inherent goodness, unique qualities, and potential for growth within humans, focusing on self-actualisation and free will.
  

  • Psychoanalytic – Posits that unconscious motives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences significantly shape personality, abnormal behaviour, and psychological disorders.

• Additional Perspectives/Fields
  

  • Functionalism – An early school of thought, influenced by Darwin, arguing that psychology should study the functions or purposes of consciousness and behaviour, rather than just its structure.
  

  • Structuralism – An early school of thought, championed by Wundt and Titchener, aiming to analyse consciousness into its basic elements (sensations, feelings, images) through introspection.
  

  • Experimental psychology – Refers to the traditional core areas of psychological research, including sensation, perception, learning, motivation, and emotion, often studied using rigorous scientific methods.
  

  • Applied psychology – Involves the practical application of psychological principles to solve everyday problems; specializations include clinical (diagnosing/treating disorders), Counselling (assisting with personal/vocational issues), educational (improving schooling), and industrial/organizational (optimising workplace behaviour and productivity).
  

  • Developmental, Social, Personality, Physiological, Psychometrics, Cognitive = These are seven major research areas alongside experimental psychology.

• Key Figures & Contributions
  

  • Wilhelm Wundt – Regarded as the