Note
Studied by 3 people
Political and Social History: Miguel Artola 1º EEII + CCPP
1700s/1800s onwards: Capitalism emerges as a discernible social system. T.S. Marshall defines civil rights, emphasizing individual freedoms, during the 1700s, laying the groundwork for modern civil liberties. This period marks the shift towards capitalism and the recognition of individual rights.
In this context, thinkers like John Locke and Adam Smith contribute significantly to these ideas, further influencing the development of political theories that prioritize personal liberty and economic freedom, which become foundational in democratic societies. Furthermore, the Enlightenment thinkers challenge traditional authority, arguing for the social contract and the necessity of government protection of these rights, thereby setting the stage for revolutions and reforms in the following centuries.
1775: Declaration of Independence: A pivotal historical moment signaling the birth of a new nation founded on principles of self-governance. Political rights are further defined by T.S. Marshall, solidifying the concept of citizen entitlements and democratic ideals.
1775-1820: Reorganization of empires occurs on a global scale.
Portugal, Spain, and France experience significant territorial losses, reshaping the geopolitical landscape.
The ascent of British hegemony marks a period of British global dominance, influencing trade, politics, and culture worldwide.
1783: End of the American War of Independence, formally recognizing the United States as a sovereign nation, free from British rule.
1789: Fiscal crisis and aristocracy revolt in France triggers a series of events: King convenes the Estates-General to address tax reform.
Estates-General transforms into a National Assembly, signaling the end of corporate representation and ushering in an era of national sovereignty and popular governance.
The Great Fear (summer 1789): Peasants revolt, attacking manor castles leading to the abolition of seigneurial rights and dismantling feudal structures.
Popular protests intensify in Paris: Storming of the Bastille (July), symbolizing defiance against royal authority, and the Women’s March on Versailles (October), demanding political change and economic relief.
1789-1848 era: Marks the definitive end of the Old Regime and the transition to modernity.
Absolutism is replaced by constitutional monarchies or regimes recognizing formal rights, establishing the rule of law and limiting governmental power.
Politics increasingly operate at a national level, fostering a sense of shared identity and collective governance.
The modern state, distinct from the composite monarchies of the Old Regime, becomes increasingly prominent, centralizing power.
Corporate society is abolished, replaced by new property rights; serfdom becomes extinct, promoting individual freedom, and slavery faces growing criticism.
Politics is shaped by left and right ideologies, moderates and radicals, defining the spectrum of political discourse.
Liberals in the 19th century were often non-democrats, prioritizing individual liberties over broad-based democratic participation.
1791-1804: Slaves stage the largest slave revolution in history, leading to Haiti's independence as a republic.
Recognized by France in exchange for indemnity to compensate slave-owners, a controversial decision reflecting the economic interests of the time.
Haiti experiences extreme poverty due to resource loss and the burden of indemnity payments, hindering its development.
Fear of similar revolutions spreads through other territories, influencing policies on slavery and colonial control.
Early 1800s: The slave trade reaches its zenith, marked by heightened demand for enslaved labor in plantation economies.
1800s onward: Modern Imperialism, sustained on a different basis from earlier forms, reshapes global power dynamics.
The Great Divergence: The development gap widens between the West and the rest of the world (Asia and Africa) by the mid-19th century, reflecting disparities in industrialization and economic progress.
The export of capital: High profit rates in industrialized countries lead to capital accumulation and surplus savings are invested abroad, facilitating economic expansion.
When considering the great divergence, we must nevertheless not forget that the average GDP levels of the most prosperous developing countries were almost equal to those of the poorest countries of the most developed regions. The most important empires usually were the most important exporters of capital (Britain, France, Germany). This foreign investment paved the way either to direct rule (colonialism) or spheres of influence. There were various forms of investing (buying Russian public debt, investing in South African mines, building Argentinian railways). These were very different from commercial or extractive empires (Spanish, Portuguese or Dutch empires in 1500-1800). Furthermore, the relative importance of foreign investment at that time has not been achieved again.
Forces driving imperial expansion:
Europe’s military advantage: A long tradition of warfare fosters technological innovations (gunpowder) and institutional changes (stronger states with permanent armies).
Europe’s fiscal advantage: Strong state capacity and economic growth enable European empires to mobilize more resources than large Asian empires.
1815: Peace is established after Napoleon's defeat at the Congress of Vienna, setting new terms for European order.
Pre-1789 French borders are reinstated without the Empire, and France is required to pay indemnity.
Britain forfeits claims on Continental Europe, focusing on maritime and colonial interests.
Russia, Prussia, and Austria increase their presence in Central and Eastern Europe, forming the Holy Alliance to maintain conservative values.
1816-1830: Latin American Revolutions share traits with the USA but diverge in key aspects.
A stronger sense of national identity and widespread popular participation complicate continental unity, leading to fragmented political landscapes.
The military emerges as a dominant elite, frequently leading to coups and political instability.
1820-1870: The birth of new empires occurs, often driven by industrialization, nationalism, and geopolitical competition.
1820 to 1924: The USA experiences strong population growth fueled by European migration, transforming its demographics and labor force.
1833 and 1848: Britain and France abolish slavery respectively, although smuggling persists until 1866.
1850s: T.S. Marshall defines social rights, laying the foundation for basic welfare provisions and social safety nets.
1851-1864: The Taiping Rebellion in China challenges the Qing empire, advocating for land rights, commerce, and gender equality.
1860s-1870s: Limited suffrage: few countries have full male suffrage; voting population at most 5-10% reflects restricted democratic participation.
1861: Abolition of serfdom in Russia marks a significant social reform.
Nobles are compensated in money and retain landed estates, preserving their economic status.
Peasants are obligated to pay for their redemption, limiting the scope of agrarian reform and perpetuating economic inequalities.
1870-1914: Wider male suffrage is achieved in multiple countries, and the scramble for Africa and Asia intensifies, marking the golden era of informal empires.
1870-1914 saw: The upsurge of new nationalist forces contesting existing barriers in Ireland, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian Empire, destabilizing political order.
1871: After the Paris Commune, Western Europe and the Americas experience a period of low intensity in conflicts, promoting relative stability.
1882: British occupation of Egypt establishes British control over strategic regions and resources.
1884: The Berlin conference leads to an agreed partition of Africa, dividing the continent among European powers.
1890s: The term imperialism gains prominence, reflecting growing awareness of colonial expansion and its implications.
1893: Women’s suffrage is implemented in New Zealand, pioneering women's political rights.
Late 19th c: Spain, Cuba, and Brazil are the last to abolish slavery, completing the process of abolition in the Americas.
1902: Women’s suffrage is implemented in Australia, expanding democratic participation.
1906: Women’s suffrage is implemented in Finland, advancing gender equality in politics.
1913: Women’s suffrage is implemented in Norway, consolidating women's political rights.
Before 1914: Pluralist democracies were limited to Britain, France, Switzerland, and the USA, while democracy as a political force gains importance.
1920-1948: Rebuilding empires involves the mandate system and the growth of the export economy, reshaping global trade and governance.
1920 : The League of Nations is established, marking a significant attempt at international cooperation and conflict resolution after the devastation of World War I.
This organization aimed to ensure peace and prevent future wars through collective security and diplomacy, although it faced challenges that would ultimately lead to its decline.
1929 : The Great Depression begins, which severely disrupts economies worldwide and challenges existing political structures, leading to significant social unrest and the rise of extremist movements in various countries.
1939 : World War II erupts, further altering the political landscape and resulting in the shift of power dynamics globally, as nations come together to confront the Axis powers.
1945 : The end of World War II leads to the establishment of the United Nations, an organization designed to foster international cooperation, promote human rights, and prevent future conflicts, representing a significant evolution from the League of Nations with a more structured framework for addressing global issues.
1945: The end of World War II leads to significant changes in global political structures, including the establishment of the United Nations and the promotion of human rights as a key consideration in international relations.
1950s-1960s: The rise of decolonization movements across Africa and Asia challenges colonial powers, leading to the emergence of new nations and a reconfiguration of international alliances.
1970s-1980s: The Cold War intensifies, dividing the world into rival blocs led by the United States and the Soviet Union, which influences political ideologies and conflicts globally.
1990s: The dissolution of the Soviet Union marks the end of the Cold War, prompting a shift towards globalization and the spread of democracy, while fostering new economic partnerships and regional conflicts.
2000s-Present: The impact of globalization continues to reshape political landscapes, as issues such as terrorism, climate change, and economic inequality challenge traditional state sovereignty and require international cooperation for effective solutions.
Additionally, the rise of populist movements worldwide reflects a growing discontent with established political institutions, leading to significant shifts in voter behavior and policy priorities. This period also witnesses a resurgence of nationalism, as countries grapple with the consequences of economic integration and cultural exchange, prompting debates on immigration, identity, and the role of the state in addressing citizens' concerns.