3. Scientific Revolution

Introduction to the Scientific Revolution

• Definition: A significant transformation in the understanding of nature and science.

• Time period: Approximately 1500s – 1700s.

• Significant developments:

  • Advances in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry.

  • Challenges traditional views of nature and knowledge.

  • Occurred alongside the Renaissance and the Reformation, where scientific ideas sometimes conflicted with Church doctrines.

  • Contributed to the Age of Exploration.

Key Concepts and Early Science

Early Views of the Universe

• Geocentric Model:

  • Proposed by early astronomers like Aristotle (~4th century).

  • Suggested the universe was centered around Earth with nine crystalline spheres.

• Ptolemy:

  • Validated the geocentric model.

  • His contributions included complex mechanisms for predicting celestial movements.

Spread of Knowledge

• Islamic Influence:

  • Arab scholars translated and built upon Ptolemaic and Aristotelian ideas.

  • Questioning of established geocentric views emerged alongside contributions to astronomy.

  • Texts spread from the Middle East to Western Europe, particularly through Spain.

Major Figures of the Revolution

Transition to Heliocentrism

• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543):

  • Challenged geocentric beliefs with his heliocentric model.

  • Published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543), a work dedicated to the Pope.

  • Admitted limitations in defending his theory and lacked predictive accuracy compared to Ptolemy.

• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601):

  • Last notable naked-eye astronomer, contributing detailed celestial observations but with a geocentric understanding.

  • Noted for observing the Great Comet of 1577, provoking thoughts on the structure of the heavens.

• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630):

  • Successor to Brahe, responsible for formulating laws of planetary motion.

  • Viewed God as a geometrician, providing a mathematical description of planetary orbits.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Background:

  • An Italian polymath who shifted from medicine to mathematics and physics.

  • Conducted early experiments on motion, notably determining the rate of objects falling.

• Innovations:

  • Popularized the telescope in astronomy around 1608.

  • Made significant astronomical discoveries including:

    • The craters on the Moon.

    • The many stars in the Milky Way.

    • Jupiter’s moons, challenging Aristotle’s views.

• Conflict with the Church:

  • His findings prompted attempts to reconcile science with Scripture, but he faced resistance from the Catholic Church.

  • Resulted in his trial and house arrest after publishing Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems in 1632.

Development of the Scientific Method

Scientific Approaches

• Francis Bacon:

  • Advocated for empirical methods and the scientific method, emphasizing observation and experimentation.

• William Harvey:

  • First to detail the systemic circulation of blood, emphasizing observation and dissection in medicine.

• Robert Boyle:

  • Known as the first modern chemist, authored The Skeptical Chemist (1661), promoting a methodical approach to studying chemical processes.

Isaac Newton (1642-1726)

• Education and Early Life:

  • Excelled in mathematics at Cambridge; worked during the closure due to the Bubonic Plague.

  • Invented calculus and explored ideas in physics and astronomy during this period.

• Major Contributions:

  • Published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687).

  • Established laws of motion and universal gravitation.

  • Solidified heliocentric theory within a strong theoretical framework.

Conclusion

• The combination of observation, questioning of traditional doctrines, and scientific methodology facilitated the emergence of modern science during the Scientific Revolution.