Democratic Representation and Public Administration

Introduction to Democratic Representation and Public Administration

• Course: POLS101

• Date: July 24, 2023

Government Spending

• Government spending in Canada ranges from 44-64% of GDP depending on metrics used.

• Definition of GDP: Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced, bought, and sold in a country.

  • Example: Personal equity can include values beyond cash (e.g., owning a home).

• Canada's GDP is approximately 2.1 trillion CAD; around 60% (~1.5 trillion CAD) is attributed to government spending.

• Spending has significantly increased over the decades:

  • 33% in 2020

  • 16% back in 1920

• Government spending occurs at various levels with more funds allocated to provincial governments than federal due to factors like:

  • Response to COVID-19 pandemic

  • Expansion of bureaucracy and civil service.

Public Service, Civil Service, and Bureaucracy

Definitions and Roles

• Civil Servants: Non-elected government workers, including staffers, lawyers, policy analysts, and front-line workers.

• Public Servants: Elected or appointed government officials, including:

  • Members of the Legislature (MLAs, MPs)

  • Ministers and Premiers

  • Supreme Court Justices, Senators, and Committee appointees.

• Collectively referred to as The Bureaucracy.

Neutrality and Affiliations

• Civil service operates independently of political parties to reduce corruption and maintain neutrality.

• Neutrality may be compromised based on how public servants are appointed:

  • Fixed-term appointments (Canada) vs. removal and reappointments with each new leader (USA).

• Some countries have established laws or constitutions outlining civil service roles and duties.

Principle-Agent Relations

Understanding the Dynamics

• The Principal-Agent relationship involves:

  • Principal: Political leaders who direct civil servants.

  • Agent: Civil servants who implement policies and manage day-to-day governance.

• Each has distinct political, personal, professional, and partisan agendas that must be balanced.

• The relationship is hierarchical, with principals holding more power over agents.

Historical Context

• Traditionally, governments operated independently, often adhering to standard business procedures.

• The bureaucratic expansion necessitated new structures and methods of interaction between political leaders and civil service, leading to:

  • New public management strategies that can challenge the impartiality of civil service.

  • An integration of public and private sectors, treating government akin to a business, which can be detrimental in contexts lacking Good Governance.

"Agencification" of Bureaucracy

Expansion and Departmentalization

• The increase in bureaucracy has led to the creation of numerous government agencies and departments, splitting duties and powers.

  • New Agencies: Examples include the Federal Ministry of Seniors (2018).

  • Some agencies may lack clear necessity, such as the Alberta Ministry of Red Tape Reduction (2019).

• Rise of public-private partnerships through NGOs and other civil organizations creates policy communities and networks.

Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths:

  • Separation of policy from implementation allows experts to use their expertise.

  • Implementation of a checks and balances system.

• Weaknesses:

  • Higher costs of operation.

  • Conflicting goals and lack of oversight/integrity regarding accountability.

  • Power dynamics where pressure groups may exploit their influence disproportionately.

Good Governance

Concept Overview

• Describes a country's ability to function effectively while promoting economic growth, resource equity, and active civil society.

• Good governance is often difficult to define but generally includes:

  • Ensuring economic growth.

  • Fair distribution of resources.

  • An independent private sector contributing to the economy.

• Reflective Questions: Does Canada and your home country practice good governance?

Electoral Systems

Importance and Types

• Electoral systems are essential for democracy, allowing for public representation.

• They vary in how they translate votes into political power, affecting representation levels and governance styles.

Simple Plurality System

• Definition: The candidate with the majority of votes (50% +1) wins.

  • In Canada: 338 seats in Parliament meaning at least 170 seats required for a majority.

• If no candidate achieves this, the party with the most seats forms a minority government.

• Recent election results (2021):

  • Liberal: 155

  • Conservative: 119

  • Bloc Quebecois: 32

  • New Democrats: 25

  • Green: 2

  • People’s Party: 0

• Countries using similar systems include the USA, UK, and Kenya.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Simple Plurality

• Strengths:

  • Straightforward process for voters.

  • Candidates selected based on merit rather than party affiliation (ideally).

  • Results in a clear mandate and facilitates strong oppositional parties.

• Weaknesses:

  • Wasted votes for less popular candidates or in party strongholds.

  • Vulnerability of minority governments to non-confidence votes.

Proportional Representation

Principles and Examples

• Represents voters based on their party preferences rather than geographical constituencies.

• Countries using this system include Israel, Brazil, and the Netherlands.

Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths:

  • Fewer wasted votes; better representation of diverse perspectives.

  • Encourages cooperation and moderate platforms.

• Weaknesses:

  • Potentially fragmented governments leading to slower decision-making.

  • Smaller parties can wield excessive influence.

Hybrid Electoral Systems

Variations and Mechanisms

• Alternative systems combine elements of plurality and proportional representation:

  • Example: Some seats may use First Past the Post (FPTP), while others utilize proportional formulas (e.g., Germany, Japan).

• Run-off elections provide a second opportunity for candidates when no winner emerges in the first voting round (used in Australia, France, etc.).

Political Parties

Characteristics and Functions

• Political parties organize candidates, often along ideological or issue-focused lines (e.g., liberal, conservative).

• Strengths:

  • Candidates are aligned in their beliefs, fostering collaboration.

  • Party discipline can ensure consistency in policies.

• Weaknesses:

  • Exclusivity can marginalize diverse views.

  • Criticizing opposition may detract from governance efforts.

Historical Context

• Political parties evolved from loose affiliations, responding to increasing voting rights and bureaucratic growth.

• Industrialization led to a more educated populace seeking political influence.

Functions of Political Parties

• Critical in structuring democratic governance:

  • Aggregating diverse interests and offering choices for voters.

  • Serving as a bridge between citizens and the political system, influencing public policy.

• Variability in operation across different political systems (some lacking parties altogether).

Global Party Structures

• Distinctions in party systems globally:

  • One-party systems (e.g., China) where only one party holds power.

  • Illiberal democracies (e.g., Russia) showcase limited real competition despite multiple parties.

Categories of Political Parties

• Broad classifications include:

  • Liberal/Radical, Conservative/Traditional, Religious, Socialist/Social Democrat, Communist, Regional, Single Issue Parties, Nationalist parties.

Electoral Effects of Party Systems

• Duverger’s Law: FPTP systems tend to create two-party landscapes, limiting competition.

• Observed patterns in Canada where Conservative and Liberal parties dominate.

• Larger multi-party systems often succeed through coalition governments, prevalent in Europe.

Contemporary Challenges to Political Parties

• Declining membership and engagement in party politics attributed to:

  • Apathy and disillusionment with political processes.

  • Rise of alternative political figures, reflecting the changing landscape of political involvement.