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ROMAN EMPIRE GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY

Administration: Government was administered through 40 provinces. The Roman emperor

directly controls the newly conquered areas, while leaving Rome and older provinces are left to

the administration of the senate. Each province had a governor responsible directly to the

emperor. Each city had a Senate or a council to direct local issues. There were over 10,000 cities

in the empire. Senate had legal authority but was subservient to the imperial civil service. Client

kingdoms were vassals or clients of the Roman Empire who retained a small degree of

autonomy. Client kingdoms served as buffers between the central Roman Empire and

surrounding potential enemies or groups.

LAW: Was based on jurisprudence (precedent) rather the legislation. Roman laws were

constantly reinterpreted based on the needs of the empire. The common code was applicable to

all free men.

Roman law was based on the fundamental concept that: ALL MEN ARE EQUAL BEFORE

THE LAW. It contained 3 basic important principles:

1. INNOCENT UNTIL PROVEN GUILTY

3. RIGHT TO APPEAL

2. RIGHT TO FACE ACCUSERS

Roman society and economy: The population was 50 to 70 million at the height of the empire.

Civilization was predominately urban. The forum was similar to the agora in Greek cities. The

forum served as a marketplace and assembly place in Roman cities. This is also where Roman

citizens gathered to vote. After Augustus died, Roman elections stopped. The Roman emperor

Tiberius abolished voting. emperors and the senate decided who would succeed them or serve as

senators. The class distinctions were rigid and based on wealth. Chief source of wealth was

agriculture. An extensive commerce system existed from Spain to India. The eastern provinces

became the economic heart of the empire. The chief weakness of the western provinces was

dependence on imported food. Until the latter part of the second century taxes remained low.

Over time the opportunities and status of the plebeian class had steadily declined. Large numbers

of unemployed existed, but abject poverty was avoided through the FREE GRAIN/BREAD

HANDOUTS called the “dole”. “BREAD AND CIRCUSES” included public baths, chariot

races and gladiatorial games eased the dissatisfaction of the poor!

Slavery: Found in all occupations, including the professional class. It began to decline, with the

rise of serfdom. There was no humanitarian effort to end slavery. Instead done through

manumission or gradual willing freeing of slaves. Done due to inability to be able to afford to

keep slaves. The decline of slavery was due chiefly to:

1. LACK OF FRESH SUPPLY OF SLAVES DUE TO LACK OF WARS.

2. FREQUENT FREEING OF SLAVES BY THEIR MASTERS.

Architecture: The Romans adopted many Greek styles, and borrowed the arch, vault, and dome

from the near east. They were the first to extensively use concrete. They also devised the

following architectural innovations:

1. Triumphal arch

2. Basilica

3. Public bath

4. Apartment buildings

5. Amphitheaters: = Held Roman sporting events, often gladiator games where both

humans and/or animals fought.

Most famous architectural works are the:

1. Colosseum: most famous architectural structure during Roman times. Finished by Titus in 80

AD.

2. Pantheon: Building in Rome that was begun in 27 BC by the statesman Marcus Vipsanius

Agrippa, rectangular with a gabled roof supported by a colonnade on all sides. It was completely

rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian sometime between AD 118 and 128. It is a circular building

of concrete faced with brick, with a great concrete dome rising from the walls and with a front

porch of Corinthian columns supporting a gabled roof with triangular pediment. Beneath the

porch are huge bronze double doors, 24 feet (7 metres) high, the earliest known large examples

of this type. Until modern times, the dome was the largest built, measuring about 142 feet (43

metres) in diameter and rising to a height of 71 feet (22 metres) above its base. There is no

external evidence of brick arch support inside the dome, except in the lowest part, and the exact

method of construction has never been determined.

3. Circus Maximus: Another Roman past time was chariot races. Chariot race tracks were

called a "circus”, and they were throughout the empire. The most famous is in Rome, the Circus

Maximus. Spectators often get subsidized food and drink at the circus and the coliseum. The

inclusion of athletic contests kept the masses happy and their minds off the fact they lost political

rights. This is part of the “bread and circuses”

ROADS/HIGHWAYS:

The Appian Way was Rome’s first major highway and is still in use. The Romans also built an

extensive road network 200,000 miles of road for 3 reasons:

1. Improved communication.

2. Roads also have a military purpose, legions can be dispatched quickly.

3. Trade is positively impacted by roads and the possession of the entire Mediterranean

Sea.

AQUEDUCTS: Stretched 1,300 miles in length moved between 200 & 300 million gallons of

water per day! Among other changes in society, aqueducts carried water over long distances to

Roman cities. Will play a role in the decline of Rome.

Religion: The official state religion of Rome was a religion of ritual without emotional appeal. It

involved animal sacrifice and emperor worship. The Romans tolerated other religions as long

as state religion was followed! There were 2 eastern mystical cults that were popular in Rome

as well:

1. Mithraism: Became popular are 100 AD probably due to the fact that it was based on

worship of the emperor. Was popular with soldiers and only open to men, therefore it’s followers

were looking for an advantage to gain promotions in the military. It has been considered a rival

of Christianity, as it celebrated December 25th

as birthday of god Mithra and Sunday was their

holy day.

2. Cult of Isis: Honored Egyptian goddess and was favored by Roman women it allowed them to

participate and because it offered immortality.

CHRISTIANITY: Persecuted in 3 RD

century AD but eventually became official Roman religion

Pre-Christian history: Christianity not the first attempt at monotheism. As your recall from the

last unit, monotheism was first tried unsuccessfully in Egypt with the failed cult of Aten.

However, the monotheism of the Judaism survived.

Second Temple period: The Second Temple was the beginning of a large theocratic society in

Persia; ruled by Persians, Ptolemies, Seleucids. During this period the Jews returned to Jerusalem

and built a 2nd

Temple on the site of the 1st

temple. Antiokhos IV was the Seleucid king involved

in Jewish revolts occurring prior to and during the Roman Empire’s reign. He tried to force

paganism on the Jews, causing a revolt. He underestimated the power/determination of the

revolting Jewish people and was defeated by them.

Hasmonean Period: The Maccabees were a priestly family that rose to power in Judea during

the rebellion against the Seleucids and the Hellenizing allies among the Jewish elite. Led by the

priest Matthias and his sons the rebellion started after a Greek official tried to make Matthias

sacrifice to a pagan god. The Maccabees established themselves as priest-kings in Jerusalem

becoming known as the Hasmonean dynasty. Eventually they will end up Hellenizing anyway.

Hasmonean dynasty will end in 40 BC when defeated by the Romans, who will establish

Jerusalem as a client kingdom.

Roman influence in Judea: Herod’s Temple was built by Herod the Great (37-4 BC) who was

a client king of the Roman Empire in Jerusalem. As the client king of Jerusalem, Herod does not

win the loyalty of his subjects. Thus, Jerusalem is divided by rival factions, including the:

Sadducees: who support the primacy of high priest, traditional, cooperate with king and

Romans.

Pharisees: a faction of the rabbis…function out of synagogues and believe it is up to them to

interpret the religious law of the Old Testament…strict interpretation of the law.

Zealots: who were not religious in motivation, but revolutionaries against foreign control of their

land (against Rome)

BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY: Christ is the Greek word for messiah. The Messiah was

the Savior that the Jews expected to give them salvation, but didn’t know what form he would

come in. The Messiah was prophesied to the Jews during the time of the Old Testament prophets.

From a secular standpoint Jesus was a self-taught rabbi (meaning not part of the three groups

mentioned on previous slide). He claimed to be the Messiah and taught a reformed version

of Judaism that reinterpreted the God of the Old Testament. The old view held God as

vengeful and jealous, Jesus' version views God as forgiving and kind. Jesus was reported to

the authorities for fomenting rebellion and his adversaries, fellow Jews, portray him as plotting

against Roman rule. Jesus was executed by the Romans who hung him on a cross. Jesus'

disciples argued that he reappeared after 3 days and would return to judge the living and dead.

The idea of resurrection existed in other religions and polytheistic worship prior to Jesus, ex:

Mithraism. Peter is the first apostle recruited by Jesus, he spreads the message to the Eastern

Med. region and Greece, preaching to Jews and Pagans, and discarding elements of the message

that some opposed (such as dietary restrictions). Each of the apostles tailored Jesus' message for

different audiences.

JUDAISM/CHRISTIANITY SPLIT: The Roman emperor Nero persecutes the growing

number of Christians. After a series of revolts against Rome, Titus is the Roman emperor who

puts an end to the Jewish revolt in the year 70 AD. He destroys Jerusalem…essentially

precipitates the actual split of the two religions (Judaism and Christianity). He commemorated

his sack of Jerusalem on a triumphal arch erected at Rome. Massive destruction of Jewish

population in Judea between 132 to 135 AD. Led to Jews being permanently removed from

Jerusalem in 135 AD, by the Roman emperor Hadrian.

PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS: The first truly organized and universal persecution of

Christians throughout the Roman Empire from 250 to 252 AD under the emperor Decius.

The EDICT OF DECIUS stated that all Romans had to sacrifice to the Roman gods and receive

a certificate saying that they had done so. These certificates were called libellus. Some

Christians did and many did not. Admiration of Christians grew due to their passive resistance.

GREAT PERSECUTION: Diocletian instituted the last and worst of Christian persecutions,

called the Great Persecution. Lasted from 303 to 311 AD, even after Diocletian abdicated in

305. Galerius continued the persecution until 311 AD. The Great Persecution is considered the

last, and worst, of the 10 persecutions against Christians.

POMPEII: The city of Pompeii was destroyed by the eruption of a volcano. However, the

remains of Pompeii give us glimpses into everyday Roman life, including showing us public

baths and streets remnants. This Pompeii fresco of a baker and his wife show a scroll and pen,

indicating a degree literacy in the community.

ROMAN EMPERORS:

PAX ROMANA: Means “ROMAN PEACE” = 200 years of peace and prosperity in Rome.

From Caesar Augustus to Marcus Aurelius. There was no major was in 2 centuries.

OCTAVIAN: Caesar’s nephew who took the name Augustus which means “revered one”.

He established Praetorian Guards, 9,000 elite troops as his personal bodyguard. Later emperors

will lose control of them. He is best remembered for reorganizing the Roman treasury, as well as

increasing the distribution of free grain and a vast program of public works.

He also instituted Julian laws to regulate family life and morals, exiling his own daughter for

having an affair.

JULIO-CLAUDIAN DYNASTY:

TIBERIUS: Stepson of Augustus. 14-37 A.D. Eventually ruled by terror. Ruled last 11 years

from an island, and murdered by the Praetorian Guard who smothered him with his own pillow!

CALIGULA= 37-41 A.D. Mentally imbalanced due to a severe fever. Spent the entire Roman

treasury in 1 year. Thought he was Egyptian pharaoh and named his favorite horse as a consul.

Also murdered by the Praetorian Guard, because of, his bizarre behavior.

CLADIUS= 41-54 A.D. = Uncle of Caligula who was spared and placed on the throne. Good

emperor, who conquered Britain. Public construction program. Last wife of 4 was his niece,

Agrippina, who poisoned him, so her son, Nero, could become the emperor. They poisoned his

mushrooms!

NERO= 54-68 A.D. 16 when emperor, claimed he was an artist. His behavior became tyrannical

and he killed his brother and mother. He was also accused of incest with his sisters and other

inappropriate behavior toward the wives and daughters of Senators and other politicians. Forced

his teacher, Seneca, to commit suicide. 1st

CIVIL WAR: 68-69 A.D.= Year of 4 emperors. Displays the fatal flaw of the Roman Empire.

The fact that there was never a clear line of succession. During this period 4 different generals

were all placed on the throne due to the power and influence of their legions and alliances.

Galba=June 68 to Jan 69

Vitellius= April to Dec, 69

Otho= Jan to April, 69

Vespasian=69 to 79

FLAVIAN EMPERORS

VESPASIAN= 69-79 AD. Restored order and stability by reorganizing the army. He also limited

power of Praetorian Guard. Best known for beginning the building of the Colosseum.

TITUS= 79-81 A.D. Oldest son of Vespasian. He completed Colosseum. During his reign

Mt.Vesuvius erupts and the city of Pompeii disappears. He also ended the first Jewish Revolt in

70. He destroyed the 2nd

Temple and forced many Jews into slavery around the empire.

DOMITIAN= 81-96A.D. Vespasian’s 2nd

son. Built Arch of Titus to honor his brother and may

also have been responsible for his death. Became paranoid and instituted reign of terror.

Murdered by a freed slaves acting for his wife and cousin.

ADOPTIVE EMPERORS

NERVA=96-98A.D. Began policy of “adoption and inauguration for successors”. Chosen

emperor by the Senate.

TRAJAN=98-117A.D. One of Rome’s greatest emperors. Rome reached its greatest size

during his reign. He is responsible for building the Column of Trajan and Trajan’s Forum. He

also put down the second major Jewish revolt.

HADRIAN 117-138 A.D.= Nephew of Trajan, he is also considered one of the greatest Roman

emperors. He rebuilt the Pantheon, with a dome, and pulled back the boundaries of Empire.

Built Hadrian’s Wall in England to establish Rome’s outer boundaries. After a series of 3

Jewish revolts, he is responsible for the dispersal of Jews from their homeland. Hadrian

suppressed the Jewish religion essentially making the Jews stateless. The main Jewish

populations will exist outside of Judea.

to persecute Christians, he blamed them for the famous

Roman fire in 64 AD. The Senate declared him a public enemy at age 30 and he took his own life

to avoid capture and execution.

ANTONIUS-PIUS=138-161 A.D. 23 years of peace and calm. Named Pius for his good

behavior.

MARCUS AURELIUS-161-180 A.D. He was known as a philosopher-king. An educated

emperor, Marcus Aurelius dabbled in Stoic philosophy (see notes from Exam 2 on the Stoics).

Conflicts on the borders of the Roman Empire force Marcus Aurelius to war, and spent most of

later years defending the empire, though he was opposed to war. Checked 1st

by German Barbarians. Persecuted Christians for their refusal to fight. He dies fighting

Germanic tribes in present day Austria. Named his son, Commodus, to succeed him ending the

reign of the “5 Good Emperors”, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius. Commodus 180-192:

The son of Marcus Aurelius his reign ended the Pax Romana. 1st

OTHER ROMAN EMPERORS AFTER THE PAX ROMANA:

Septimus Severus (193-211) Reorganized provinces to increase tax yield and depreciated

currency. He provided good administration.

Caracalla (198 -217): Antoninus Caracalla is a ruler from the Severus Dynasty who comes to

power by murdering his brother. He implements the Constitutio Antoniniana (also called the

Edict of Caracalla) in 212, making all free subjects of the Roman Empire full Roman

citizens. Prior to this, citizenship was exclusive to only certain regions. A key outcome of

this decree is that all Roman citizens now must pay taxes. This revamps the old inefficient

system of collecting taxes and increases state revenues (needed to pay the armies

guarding/expanding the empire). He drained the Roman treasury by increasing the pay of

soldiers by 50%! He also constructed the famous baths of Caracalla. He attempted to solve

money problems by raising taxes.

The Ugly Period of Roman Emperors: 235-284

Armies become politically important. Armies stationed in different quarters of the empire

could declare their generals as emperors, thereby leading to additional civil wars.

Crisis of the 3rd Century (235-285): In the years between 235-285, 25 different emperors

are recognized in Rome (with many others claiming the title without formal recognition).

Obviously, this leads to increased government instability. Few of the emperor’s rule for

long periods or establish strong leadership positions. Period also referred to as the

Barracks emperors. It is a 50-year period of military anarchy. 20 out of 22 are murdered!

Decius 249-251: Began 1st

general persecution of Christians.

Aurelianus (270-275) Built permanent walls around Rome and pushed the attacking

Alamanni tribes out of Italy.

full scale invasion

emperor to fight as a gladiator

in the Colosseum. He became cruel and brutal and was killed on orders by his family members.

His wrestling instructor murdered him in a bath!

THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE:

In addition to their infighting, Roman emperors must contend with constant war with the

Sassanid Empire of Persia. The Sassanids, Shapur I, captured the Roman Emperor Valerian in

battle. Valerian is the first Roman emperor to be captured. He will die in captivity and after his

death his body is skinned and dyed to be an example to future attackers of the Sassanid kingdom.

Without powerful leadership, the Roman Empire is splintering by 271. This map shows Roman

territory that acknowledged the emperor (red), in addition to Roman territories that are semi-

independent. These semi-independent areas remain Roman in spirit, but no longer believe

the central Roman government can offer them protection. Aurelian’s Walls are a sign of the

insecurity and instability in the Roman Empire. The walls are built around the city of

Rome to protect the city from invaders, something long considered impossible.

Diocletian (284-304): As emperor, Diocletian reforms the Roman government system, including

ordering a census and imposing new taxation based on the census results. He triples the size of

government by creating new layers of administration and smaller units of government. To run

his new government, Diocletian establishes three separate emperor positions. This new

government system slowly disintegrated centralized power in the Roman Empire – few

emperors now live close to Rome, the administrative heart of the empire. The Diocletian

reforms also create a senior/junior emperor system. Diocletian appoints four senior

emperors (called Augusti); each augusti appointed a junior emperor (Caesar) to work

beneath him. When the Augusti retired, he was replaced by the Caesar, thereby preventing

automatic hereditary succession. This program also failed, and more civil wars follow.

System is referred to as a tetrarchy.

Diocletian also tried economic reforms such as standardizing currency, fixing prices for certain

goods & services, and forcing children to adopt the occupations of their parents. He issues the

Price Edict, which set maximum legal price and wages for commodities. While Diocletian is

moderately successful in bringing order back to the empire, his policies also create

problems such as inflation. He became the first emperor to abdicate the thrown!

Constantine (310-337) He defeated rival Maxentius in 312. He issued EDICT OF MILAN,

which called for universal religious toleration 313. The Edict of Milan (313) issued by

Constantine I, grants religious toleration in the Roman Empire to Christians. As the

religion of the emperor, Christianity enjoys advantages over other religions such as land

and wealth given to the church. Christianity moves from a persecuted underground

religion to a position of favoritism. Many of the Roman elite begin to convert. Christianity

is the religion of most emperors after Constantine. He built the Arch of Constantine to

commemorate his victory over Maxentius (the battle that inspired Constantine’s conversion

to Christianity and secured his position as emperor).

He reunited empire in 324, becoming the first Christian emperor. He moved capital from

Rome to Byzantium, and the city became known as Constantinople, present day Istanbul,

Turkey. Moving the capital to Constantinople was advantageous because of its location on

the sea (good for trade and communications) and relatively strategic proximity to other

Roman Empire locations. Constantinople also difficult to invade or conquer.

Constantinople remains the Christian capital for the next 7 centuries. Rome is still the

center of the Roman Empire, but functions more as a “museum” to the greatness of the

empire.

Theodosius I: Made orthodox Christianity the state religion. With his death, the division of

the empire became permanent.

OVERVIEW OF THE CAUSES FOR THE FALL OF ROME

Internal causes included problems that were political economic and social. There is no single

cause for the fall of Rome. Historians conclude that the fall of Rome was a series of events and

circumstances that occurred over a long period of time.

Political reasons:

1. NO LAW OF SUCCESSION

3. DECLINE OF LOYALTY OF THE ARMY

2. INCAPABLE AND CORRUPT LEADERS

4. EMPIRE WAS TOO BIG!

Economic reasons:

Decreasing farm production led to the need to import food in the west. This created an

unfavorable balance of trade. Money went out to buy things like food, but no money was

flowing back into Rome. The Romans became buyers but were not sellers.

Social: 3 main issues:

1. We see the decline of the Roman population. Led in the aqueducts as well as several

epidemics that severely diminished the Roman population.

2. The decline of citizens sense of civic responsibility.

3. Christianity was blamed for destroying the Roman religion.

CHRISTIANITY AND THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE:

Prior to the Roman Emperor Constantine, Christians were persecuted in the Roman Empire

because the religion threatened the social hierarchy (calling Jesus the “King of Kings” for

example threatened the authority of the emperor).

COUNCIL OF NICEA: In the first few centuries of Christianity, different churches adopted

different views of dogma (official church belief). Constantine I wanted agreement on official

versions of church belief, so he convened the Council of Nicea. The decisions of the council

included rulings on heresy (beliefs at odds with those of the church), punishments for

heresy, and Arianism. The council produces a “unified” doctrine of Christianity and

declares Arianism as heresy.

CHALLENGES TO CHRISTIANITY: Arianism was the belief of Arian, an early

influential Christian, that Jesus was a separate but lesser god than God. Arianism

contradicted the Christian insistence on monotheism (single god). The first few Roman

emperors followed Arian Christianity. Julian the Apostate (361-363): Roman emperor and

Constantine’s nephew who reverts back to paganism (the last Roman emperor to do so).

Julian tried to revitalize paganism throughout the empire, organizing the pagan faiths, but died

before his changes took hold.

COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE: Theodosius I is the emperor who summons the Council

of Constantinople. The Council of Constantinople again condemns Arianism. Also

reinforces orthodox Christianity and makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman

Empire. Also creates the hierarchy of the church. The hierarchy and administration of the

church becomes more organized and formal:

Pope = The senior clergy member, the Bishop of Rome. The first pope is Peter, one of Jesus’

disciples, and the power of the position derives from this succession.

Archbishops = In charge of entire provinces, multiple cities.

Bishops = In charge of one city, priests work under him.

4 major branches of Christianity during 5th & 6th centuries:

1. Orthodox belief=heart of W. Euro., N. Africa, Asia (Orthodox = “correct belief”; prior to

major break in Christianity, Catholic and Orthodox practitioners were considered

interchangeable).

2. Arian belief=parts of Spain, Portugal, Eastern Mediterranean.

3. Monophyisite Christianity: influential in the Byzantine Empire that argued the divine and

human natures of Jesus were unified. This was in contrast to the orthodox definition that Jesus

had two natures, one completely human and the other completely divine, and that they were not

simultaneously present. Egypt, Syria, Armenia

4. Nestorianism=Mesopotamia

GROWING POWER OF THE CHURCH: Theodosius I and Bishop Ambrose of Milan:

Theodosius I runs afoul of Bishop Ambrose of Milan when the emperor orders the bishop to pay

for rebuilding a synagogue burned by Milan’s Christians. The Bishop balks at this request,

threatening the emperor with excommunication (banishment from the church through forbidding

the emperor to take part in the sacred rite of communion). The threat of excommunication

becomes a potent weapon used by the church against emperors – the church can use this

weapon to shape the empire’s policies.

BEGINNING OF THE END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE:

Theodosius I (379-395): Is considered the last true Roman Emperor (after his death, the empire

was divided between his sons, Honorius and Arcadius). He reconciled the conflict between the

gradually powerful Goths and his Roman Empire through diplomacy (making them

federates) Reached an agreement between Goths and Roman Empire granting Goths land,

legal status and internal autonomy in exchange for peace. Federates= nomadic tribes

inside the Roman Empire that are granted autonomy but must help Roman Empire protect

the frontier and serve in the army when needed.

The children of Theodosius I, Honorius and Arcadius, divide the Roman Empire into two halves.

This division remains after their death, with a Latin influenced western side and Greek

influenced eastern side. After Theodosius’ death, the position of emperor was relatively

weak.

The arrival of the Germanic Tribes: The Germanic tribes were the primary invaders into

Roman territory predominately but not entirely from the north. These invasions began in earnest

during the 2nd

century during the time of Marcus Aurelius. By the 4th

almost incapable of defending themselves.

INVADING TRIBES:

Alamanni: Settled along the upper Rhine River. They threatened Rome’s northern frontier

Visigoths = (WEST GOTHS) SEE BELOW!!

Vandals: They crossed Rhine River to France, then to Spain, then to north Africa. They rebuilt

city of Carthage. More below!

Huns: The Huns, a powerful nomadic tribe of fierce cavalry warriors sweeping through Europe

from Asia, conquering other nomadic tribes outside of the Roman Empire. The other nomadic

tribes must join the Huns or flee. Many of those who flee seek refuge inside the Roman Empire.

One group is the Visigoths. They appear in the west around 370 AD. They reached their height

under Attila (r. 434 to 452). SEE BELOW!

Invasions and Chaos: The Visigoths were pushed west into Roman territory by the Huns

starting in 370 AD. The Romans allowed the Visigoths to settle below the Danube River after

they had asked the Roman Emperor Valens in 376 AD, for permission to settle on Roman

territory. Emperor agrees but demands payments that Visigoths cannot make – some Visigoths

forced to sell children into slavery to pay the fee Abused by Roman officials, they revolted.

which resulted in a disastrous defeat of the Roman legions to barbarian cavalry at

Adrianople in 378 AD. The Roman Emperor, Valens, leads a Roman army tired from fighting

other wars against the Visigoths and is killed/defeated. It is the first time that the Roman

legions had been defeated by the barbarians on Roman soil. (

Germanic invasions began in earnest in December of 406 AD. Invaders were practically

unopposed due to Rome’s meager and scattered defenses. The Emperor Honorius (395-425)

moved capital to Ravenna in the north in order to better defend the empire. Honorius hired

Stilichco, a Vandal, as commander of the Roman armies. He was a Vandal who rose to

power in the Roman army. He became a general with the title “master of the soldiers and

family” under the emperor Honorius. Stilicho fought the Visigoth invasion of the Roman

Empire in the west. Stilichco was a capable general and defeated the Visigoths and other

German tribes. Eventually Honorius had him murdered due to jealousy!

After the death of Stilicho, the Romans were unable to defend themselves. The city of Rome

was easily and brutally sacked in 410 by Alaric the Visigoths. It was the first-time enemy

soldiers had been in Rome since the sacking by the Gauls in 387 BC. Rome would continue

to have problems with “barbarian” groups such as the Vandals from North Africa (who also

sacked Rome), the Franks, Huns, and Ostrogoths, severely weakening the empire.

century, the Romans were

Under the leadership of Attila, the Huns invaded Europe and get into Gaul but were

defeated/drew at Battle of Chalons in 451 AD. The Roman forces were led by Aetius, the

last effective Roman general. Attila then invades Italy in 452 and destroys the city of Aqueilia.

Attila then stops at the Po River and does not complete the invasion of Italy. Theories include:

A. Famine in the land resulted in Attila running out of food.

B. Plague broke out amongst Attila’s troops.

C. Pope Leo I intervened at the insistence of Emperor Valentinian. No records of this meeting.

D. Superstition: Alaric had died a few months after his sack of Rome. Did Attila want to run the

same risk?

Emperor Valentinian III (425-455) murdered his capable general Aetius at a meeting in Ravenna.

Valentinian in turn was murdered by Aetius followers! The Romans no longer have a general

capable of protecting what remains of the empire.

Next came the Vandals under Gaiseric who invaded Italy and sacked Rome with great

savagery in 455 AD.

ROMULUS AUGUSTUS was deposed as the last Roman emperor in the west in 476 AD. A

German barbarian who was replaced by a German barbarian, ODOVACAR.

Results:

1.GERMAN BARBARIANS NOW RULED ITALY.

2.ITALY WOULD NOT BE UNITED AGAIN UNTIL 19TH

CENTURY.

3.EAST WOULD REMAIN INDEPENDENT FOR ANOTHER 1000 YEARS.