Chapter 8: Emotion and Motivation

The Nature of Emotion

• Definition: Emotion involves a temporary state that includes subjective experiences and physiological activity, preparing individuals for action.

• Neuroscience: Emotions do not reside in a single location in the brain and cannot be measured by a single method.

• Response to Appraisals: Emotions result from evaluations or appraisals of stimuli or events.

The Emotional Mind

• Feelings: Scientifically studied through the measurement of reported feelings and their connections.

• Map of Emotions: A two-dimensional map indicating emotional feelings based on two main dimensions:

  • Valence (Pleasure vs. Displeasure)

  • Arousal (Activation vs. Deactivation)

• Global Understanding: People worldwide can describe unique locations of feelings on this emotional map.

• Appraisals: Conscious or unconscious evaluations of emotion-relevant aspects of stimuli or events.

• Action Tendencies: Readiness to engage in specific behaviors associated with emotions, such as:

  • Anger → approach behaviors

  • Disgust → avoidance behaviors

The Emotional Body

• Early Theories:

  • James-Lange Theory: Emotional experience results from physiological reactions to stimuli.

  • Cannon-Bard Theory: Stimuli trigger both physiological responses and emotional experiences simultaneously.

• Two-Factor Theory: Proposes that stimuli lead to a general physiological state that is interpreted as a specific emotion. Key points:

  • People have one bodily reaction for emotionally relevant stimuli, but interpretations vary based on context (e.g., fear vs. excitement).

  • Criticism suggests that a single bodily response does not account for all emotions.

The Emotional Brain

• Amygdala Role: Acts as a threat detector and is important for emotion processing.

• Fear Pathways:

  • Fast Pathway: Thalamus → Amygdala

  • Slow Pathway: Thalamus → Cortex → Amygdala

Emotional Communication

• Emotional Expression: Observable signs of emotional states based on the universality hypothesis (proposed by Darwin).

  • Emotional expressions convey the same meanings across different cultures; individuals can accurately create and judge facial expressions.

• Communicative Expression: Majority of psychologists agree on five universal emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness.

• Cultural Perspectives: Studies show different expressions among cultures (e.g., Himba vs. American).

The Cause and Effect of Expression

• Symbols vs. Signs: Words are symbols; facial expressions are signs of emotions influenced by their causes.

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Expressing emotions can lead to the experience of those emotions.

Deceptive Expression

• Control of Expression: Individuals can control expressions to some degree, subject to display rules:

  • Intensification: Over-expressing emotions.

  • Deintensification: Muting expressions.

  • Masking: Conveying one emotion while feeling another.

  • Neutralizing: No expression despite feeling emotions.

• Sincere vs. Insincere Expressions: Four features that distinguish:

  • Morphology: Reliable muscle usage.

  • Symmetry: More symmetrical in sincere expressions.

  • Duration: Observable for specific timeframes (0.5 to 5 seconds).

  • Temporal Patterning: Smooth appearance/disappearance of expressions.

Hunger and Eating Disorders

• Motivation to Eat: Human hunger signals involve hormones like ghrelin and leptin regulating hunger experiences.

• Eating Disorders:

  • Binge Eating Disorder (BED): Uncontrolled eating episodes.

  • Bulimia Nervosa: Binge eating followed by purging.

  • Anorexia Nervosa: Extreme restriction due to fear of fat.

Obesity

• Current Trends: Obesity (BMI ≥ 30) is a significant issue in the U.S., affecting children and adults.

• Causes: Include genetics, environmental factors, and changes in lifestyle.

  • Effects: Emotional and psychological impacts on self-esteem and quality of life.

  • Conquering Obesity: Challenges include metabolic resistance and creating effective strategies for weight loss.

Sexual Desire

• Biological Motivation: Influenced by hormones (DHEA, testosterone, estrogen).

• Reasons for Sexual Behavior: Vary between genders but commonly include attraction, pleasure, and emotional expression.

The Motivated Mind

• Types of Motivation:

  • Intrinsic Motivation: Actions rewarded by their own nature (e.g., enjoyment).

  • Extrinsic Motivation: Actions based on external rewards but may undermine intrinsic satisfaction.

• Conscious vs. Unconscious Motivation: Awareness of motivations varies, affecting actions and decisions.