The affluent society: 1951-1964

Conservative governments

Reasons for political dominance

Why did the Conservatives win the 1951 election?

• Conservative strengths
  • offered to build %%300,000 new homes a year%% as housing scarce after WW2
  • Churchill was seen as hero after WW2
  • had many charismatic young MPs like Reginald Maudlin
  • seen as the party of stability
  • supportive of welfare changes by Labour, published in The Industrial Charter in 1947
• Labour weaknesses
  • rationing increased under Labour with the meat ration being cut to its lowest level
  • Labour was spending %%10% of GDP on defence,%% a big amount for an economically weak nation
  • middle class voters tired of shortages
  • Labour split over charges to dentistry and spectacles on the NHS, which damaged their image
• other factors (election)
  • Liberal vote collapsed, with the Conservatives benefitting from this
  • Liberal vote fell from %%2.6 mil in 1945 to 730,000 in 1951%%
  • %%Representation of the People Act 1948%% led to boundary changes
  • many Labour seats became marginal
  • Liberals could only put forward %%109 candidates%% in 1951
  • in seats where Liberals couldn’t stand, Liberal voters voted for Conservative 3:2

Why were the Conservatives politically dominant form 1951-1964?

• Labour divisions
  • split between %%Fundamentalists%% (Bevan) v %%Revisionists%% (Gaitskell)
  • nuclear policy
  • F wanted unilateral nuclear disarmament, whereas R was opposed to unilateralism
  • in 1960, the left of the party forced party to take a unilateral policy, but it was abandoned within a year
  • future of socialism
  • F wanted commitment to clause IV and wanted trade unions to help shape future policy
  • R wanted Labour to decide policy and maintain a capitalist system
  • BUT:
  • Labour still won 14 mil votes in the 1951 election
  • 1955 election, Labour won 46% of vote, so still popular
• popular policies
  • %%Housing Act 1952%% increased subsidies to local authorities
  • promised and succeeded in building %%300,000 new homes a year%%
  • in 1954, rationing ended
  • %%Clean Air Act 1956%% aimed to solve problems of air pollution
  • act eliminated building of power stations near urban areas and more
  • %%Homicide Act 1959%% restricted crimes punishable by death to only 2
  • BUT:
  • %%Obscene Publications Act 1959%% attempted to censor ‘corrupting’ material e.g. ‘Lady Chatterley’s Lover’
  • %%Beeching Report 1963%% led to cuts in gov. spending, like closing 55% of train stations causing public anger and isolation
• leadership
  • Churchill seen as a war hero
  • Eden popular with the public and increased majority to %%60 seats%%
  • Macmillan restored party unity and increased majority to %%100 seats%%
  • Macmillan used media such as TV to increase popularity
  • BUT:
  • by 1951, Churchill was old and was too focused on foreign affairs
  • Eden’s reputation destroyed by the %%Suez Crisis in 1956%% and resigned in 1957
  • by the 1960s, Macmillan seemed out of touch due to his aristocratic image

Assess the view that Britain was successful under Eden.

• economically
  • by 1955, %%unemployment was only 200,000%%
  • wages rose by %%6.5% from 1948-58%%
  • in 1956, %%days lost by strike action was only 2 million%%, in USA it was 5x that
  • BUT:
  • The suez crisis in 1956 highlighted UK’s weak economy as it had to beg USA for a loan after a run on the pound
  • did little to prevent strikes, as a result days lost by striking %%rose to 8.5 mil in 1957%%
• politically
  • %%Clean Air Act 1956%% aimed to solve problems of air pollution
  • act eliminated building of power stations near urban areas and more
  • prevented any future smogs like that of the %%Great Smog of 1952%%
  • %%Homicide Act 1959%% restricted crimes punishable by death to only 2
  • after controversial executions like %%Derek Bentley%%
  • Eden increased majority to %%60 seats%%
  • focused on foreign policy
  • created a close relationship with US President Dwight Eisenhower
  • welcomed USSR leader Khrushchev to Britain
  • BUT:
  • Suez Crisis caused a rebellion of nearly %%40 Conservative MPs%%
  • Suez Crisis damaged Eden’s reputation as a leader
• socially
  • %%Housing Act 1952%% increased subsidies to local authorities
  • promised and succeeded in building %%300,000 new homes a year%%
  • %%Rent Act 1957%% made more properties available to rent
  • BUT:
  • Suez Crisis caused divisions in the country as %%mass anti-war protests%% took place in reaction to Britain’s invasion of Egypt
  • Rent Act made it easier for landlords to exploit their tenants

Assess the reasons why the Conservatives fell from power

• social policy
  • Vassal Affair, 1963
  • blackmailed by Soviets for homosexuality
  • early 60s, rumours of affair with junior gov. minister led to resignation
  • report showed allegations were false
  • Argyll Affair, 1963
  • Duchess accused of infidelity by husband
  • photos of her naked, surrounded by men, inc. cabinet ministers
  • Suez crisis 1956
  • led to violent protests in London
• foreign policy
  • Philby Case, 1963
  • former Head of Soviet Intelligence of MI5, Macmillan had cleared him but had defected to USSR
  • Suez Crisis 1956,
  • Britain, Israel and France made a plan to create false war so they get get back the canal
  • led to condemnation from US, USSR and UN< made Nassar a sympathetic figure
  • showed how Britain was not a superpower
• economic
  • Suez Crisis
  • without US support, plan failed as US treasury stopped sending all money to UK until they withdrew
  • Britain and EEC
  • seen as essential UK should join after economic problems
  • rejected as Charles de Gualle had influence
  • UK had strong links with commonwealth so thought of as not ‘true European’

How far was the Suez crisis the reason for decline in foreign reputation?

• economic
  • US began selling sterling
  • caused run on the pound
  • value of pound plummeted with gov. spending billions to maintain value
  • Macmillan sent to Washington to beg for a loan, withheld until left Suez
• relations
  • USSR threatened Britain with nuclear strike if they didn’t leave
  • destabilised region
  • Soviet power grew in area
  • decolonisation sped up
  • tension between Israel and neighbours increased
  • BUT:
  • argued relations decreased with USSR due to Philby Case
  • Cambridge spy ring created tension with USA
• decolonisation
  • sped up process of decolonisation
  • Winds of Change speech - 1960
  • Nigeria, 1960
  • imposed federal constitution with a coalition
  • BUT:
  • could be due to wanting entry into the EEC

How far were Labour’s years in power a disaster?

• social
  • trade unions were powerful
  • by 1969 50% were art of a union with no regulation
  • had to deal with militant union leaders like Frank Cousins
  • Wildcat strikes such as Pilkington Glass Strikes of 1970 led to thousands losing jobs
  • housing promise watered to 300,000, mainly cheap and high rise
  • Ronan Point collapsed in 1968 after 2 weeks opened
  • BUT:
  • no national strikes protesting pit closures after 1962
  • technology improved with promotion of colour TV, supersonic passenger plane Concorde in 1969
• political
  • NI
  • Troubles escalate in 1969
  • Aug. 1969, Battle of Bogside with fighting between police and nationalists
  • 1969, UPV bombed water and electricity installations
  • provisional iRA split from IRA
  • parties opinion polls were 12%
  • BUT:
  • Sept-Dec 1969, there was quell of violence due to the British Army in the region
  • 1969, agreed Free Derry would have barricades taken away any policed by ‘peace corps’
• economic
  • devaluation of pound in 1967 made Britain look weak
  • triggered inflation which led to unions calling for higher wages
  • wildcat strikes damaging economy
  • crisis caused gov. to introduce counter reforms and cuts
  • school milk for secondary students abolished
  • proscription charges reintroduced

How far did Labour ntroduce liberal reforms?

• Abortion Act 1967
  • 100,000 backstreet abortions carried out as unmarried women had little chioce
  • Thalidomide scandal
  • sleeping pill led to over 2000 babies being born with deformations
  • doctors believed it necessary for physical and psych. reasons
  • BUT:
  • pioneer was a backbencher, not Labour gov.
  • number of women getting abortions increased to around 130,000 a year, blamed for permissiveness
• Divorce Act 1969
  • prior, law favoured the husband, as burden of proof on woman and stigmatised women more than men
  • Jenkins believed it caused ‘ a great deal of unnecessary suffering’
  • ‘no fault’ nature took away stigma as divorce could be ended after 2 years of seperation
  • BUT:
  • private member’s bill by backbencher Leo Abse
  • bill failed first time
  • surge in divorces, from 38,000 in 1965 to around 120,000 in 1975
• Sexual Offences Act 1967
  • attitudes to homosexuality slowly changing (Wolfenden Report)
  • Homosexual Reform Society became important lobby group
  • Act passed after debate
  • BUT:
  • people considered it an illness, sympathetic not accepting
  • age of consent 21 to ‘protect teenagers’, so stereotypes and misconceptions
  • didn’t pass in NI and Scotland and opposition too strong

How far did society improve?

• popular culture
  • Hair; The musical displayed drugs and sexuality, reflecting time
  • the pill was introduced to non-married women in 1967, which played role in sexual liberation
  • pirate radio (e.g. Radio Caroline in 1964) played popular music and addressed BBC’s failed demand
  • BUT:
  • Hair criticised by conservative figures for permissiveness
  • the pill led to women marrying later, backlash from conservative figures
  • pirate radio limited in influence
• education
  • made ‘comprehensive’ system where all children could be under one roof
  • promoted through 10/65 directive with funding
  • fairer system
  • open university set up in 1970
  • offered high quality degrees for those not available to attend campus uni
  • within decade, 70,000 enlisted
  • BUT:
  • comprensive system led to poor kids not being able to go to grammar schools
  • many parents of middle class sent kids to independent schools rather than risk system
  • hindered social mobility
• race relations
  • Race Relations Act 1968
  • banned discrimination in housing, employment and other services
  • Notting Hill Carnival started in 1964
  • integration of culture with ska, and West Indian music becoming popular
  • BUT:
  • Rivers of Blood speech in 1968 led to burst of violence
  • 1000s protested Powell’s resignation
  • idea of racism made respected
  • loopholes in RRA where employers could still discriminate

To what extent did foreign policy improve?

• relations with USA
  • Wilson was supporter of USA and wanted to maintain the Atlantic Allaince
  • BUT:
  • decision to keep troops out of Vietnam irritated Johnson as they wanted backing
  • attempts to resolve by Wilson annoyed US, like trying to get the USSR and US to meet (US refused)
  • failed attempts such as ‘phase A/phase B’ when US would stop bombing North Vietman and North would withdraw from South
• relations with Europe
  • Wilson slowly convinced of economic argument and applied to EEC
  • WIlson met de Gaulle in 1967 to gain supports for entry
  • BUT:
  • Wilson himself preferred the Commwealth and relations with USA
  • many on the left saw the EEC as a capitalist club
  • membership rejected as Wilson would not detatch from ‘special relationship’ with USA
• decolonisation
  • sped up after 1967 devaluation crisis
  • troops pulled out of countries such as Malaysia by 1971
  • BUT:
  • Southern Rhodesia decolonisation failed
  • Ian Smith became PM and challenged Labour gov.
  • Ian Smith refused to back down even after talks with Wilson in 1967
  • oil sanctions failed
  • apartheid in Rhodesia

How successful was Thatcherite economics?

• monetarism
  • public spending cut to local authorities and public services
  • try to strengthen economy by spending less
  • cut top rate of tax by 40%
  • 1987, Britain had lowest tax rates in Europe
  • attracted foreign investors from e.g. South Korea
  • low inflation rates (5%) and high growth suggests boom as a result
  • BUT:
  • public spending actually increased due to higher level of unemployment (social security)
  • fuelled inequality as poorest suffered, with unemployment doubling to 2.8 mil in 2 years by 1981
• deregulation
  • ‘Big Bang’ in 1986 deregulated the London Stock Exchange
  • able to work for big firms and non-British could take part
  • greater investment
  • led to ‘Yuppies’ who took part in stock market
  • increased youth wealth
  • Britains GDP increased by av. of 4% a year in 1980s
  • BUT:
  • deregulation led to repeal of Fair Wages Resolution Act in 1986, so employers so longer had to pay a fair wage
  • Financial Services Act 1986 protected investors, whilst workers did not have fair wage
• privatisation
  • mass privatisation like British Gas in 1981 raising 5.4 bil
  • amount of share owners increased form 3mil to 9mil
  • Jaguar cars made £121 mil in first year after it was privatised
  • BUT:
  • short term solution
  • people sold shares for quick profit
  • companies laid off up to 50% of workforce
  • unemployment reached 3 mil by 1987

impact of Thatcherism on society

• housing
  • people able to buy own council homes under Housing Act 1980
  • by 1987, over 1 mil council houses had been sold, and acceleration of applications
  • Right to Buy was very popular, hard for labour to criticise
  • BUT:
  • led to collapse in building new social housing
  • drop in social housing helped increase number of homeless or living in overcrowded flats
• miners strikes
  • in 1984, national coal board announced plan to close 20 pits
  • Scargill did not gain total support as refused to hold strike ballot
  • Thatcher able to get revenge and claimed victory for silent majority and middle England
  • BUT:
  • workforce decreased from 200,000 in 1980 to 60,000 by 1990
  • power of trade unions permanently reduced
  • numbers affiliated with TUC fell from 112 in 1979 to 78 by 1990 (unions)
• poll tax
  • aim to make councils accountable to their electorate
  • believed if everyone contributed it was fairer
  • BUT:
  • anti poll tax unions set up urging people not to pay
  • 30% didn’t pay
  • nearly 200,000 protested it in Trafalgar Square in 1990

Extra-parliamentary opposition?

• arts
  • New satire boom
  • popular shows like Spitting Image were critical of gov.
  • emergence of Channel 4 in 1982 gave new opportunities
  • alt. comedians like Ben Elton grew popular on shows like The Comic Strip
  • TV shows like auf wiedersehen pet showed what working class life was like in the North
  • 1984, LGSM organised ‘pits and perverts’ concert in support of miner, with Bronski Beat playing
• the church
  • became more critical as thought gov. was abandoning poor communities
  • 1985, church reported published ‘Faith in the City’
  • raised concerns over social depravation due to mas unemployment
  • cardboard cities like Manchester, london
  • BUT:
  • report dismissed as quasi-Marxist
  • but report picked up on mainstream news and opened up discussions
• gay rights
  • Stonewall formed in 1989 as a response to s.28 and had support of celebs like Ian Mckellan
  • before stonewall
  • campaigners grew in wake of AIDS crisis in early 1980s
  • Gay Pride marches in Lodon had been annual since 1972
  • Lesbian and Gays Support the Miners formed in 1982
  • pride became major annual event
  • BUT:
  • critics criticised fund raising activities of LGSM

How unsuccessful was Major?

• political sleaze
  • David Mellor of National Heritage Secretary accused of affair
  • found to have accepted gifts from people with close likes to Pelestinian Liberation Army which led to resignation
  • Back to Basics - Oct. 1993
  • after high profile murders like Stephen Lawrence, Major wanted new direction
  • revelations of MP’s private lives filled news, used as soundbite
  • more than a dozen sex scandals like Tim Yeo
• economic
  • Black Wednesday, 1992
  • Britain had to leave the ERM after british currency came under pressure
  • inflation went up to 15% to one day
  • 1991-1993 recession
  • house price boom up to 30% in 1990
  • inflation 10% by 1990
  • by end of 1992, 900,000 home owners were in negative equity
  • BUT:
  • inflation fell to 2% by 1997
  • economic grwoth was 4% by 1997, strongest in Europe
  • value of sterling recovered to pre- Black Wednseday value
• divisions
  • divided over Europe with Euroskeptics
  • in 1995, Major quit and put up leadership challenge ‘put up or shut up’
  • Redwood put himself up for leadership
  • Major won but 89 voted for Redwood and right - wing hostile

Why did Tories lose the elections?

personality

• 66% of voters thought hague was a ‘bit of a wally’
• Hague seen as ‘weird and geeky’
• Howard seen as unable to give straight questions
• Smith lacked charisma
• BUT:
• Cameron popular

policy

• Hague’s campaign to ‘save the pound’ seen as unreasonable as doesn’t want to join the Euro
• Duncan Smith criticised as supporting the war on terror
• 2005, Howard fought election on far-right, accused of abondoning policies

party

• Hague arguments between mods and rockers, factions
• conservative policies from Smith for wanting to keep s.28
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