Lecture Notes Flashcards

King's Peace and Macedonian Rise

• King's Peace (387/386 BC): An agreement between Sparta and Persia.

• Sparta ceded Ionia to Persia, allowing the Greek city-states to fight among themselves.

• This disunity facilitated the rise of Macedon in the north.

Macedon's Position and Philip II's Early Life

• Macedon was initially a minor power, viewed by Greeks as semi-barbarian (less intelligent, uneducated).

• Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, was the architect of Macedonian power.

• Philip II was the youngest of three sons and was sent to Thebes as a hostage at age 14.

• This experience exposed him to Greek battle tactics, particularly those of the Theban hoplites and phalanxes.

Philip II's Military Reforms and Expansion

• Upon returning to Macedon, Philip II gained command and later usurped the throne from his nephew, becoming king.

• He modernized the Macedonian army using tactics learned in Thebes and new military technology.

• He trained his army during a period of peace secured through treaties with neighbors.

• Key to his army was the upgraded phalanx with longer pikes, providing a reach advantage.

• He also established the Companions, an elite cavalry unit.

• He consolidated his territory by routing the Illyrians and securing his western front through marriage.

• Beginning in the 340s BC, Philip II expanded south, conquering or allying with most of Northern and Central Greece.

• He gained control of silver and gold mines to fund his military expansion.

• He was elected leader of the Corinthian League, expanding his influence in Greece.

Philip II's Tactics and the Battle of Chaeronea

• Philip II often took territories without war, using persuasion, bribery, and intervention in local conflicts.

• The Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC marked Macedonian dominance over Greece.

• Thebes and Athens allied against Philip II but were defeated due to Philip II's tactical retreat and cavalry assault.

• This battle is a turning point as Greek city-states lost their independence in international affairs.

Philip II's Plan for Persia and Assassination

• Philip II planned to invade Persia to liberate Ionia and avenge Xerxes' invasion.

• However, he was assassinated before launching the campaign, passing the war to his son, Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great's Rise and Conquest of Persia

• Alexander became king at age 20 after his father's assassination.

• He conquered the Persian Empire in a few years.

• Alexander was well-trained by his father and tutored by Aristotle.

• He invaded Anatolia (modern Turkey) to liberate Ionia and moved through Israel, Egypt, and into the Persian heartland.

• The Persian army primarily consisted of mercenaries and poorly paid conscripts.

• Alexander's army was better trained, and he was a skilled general.

• Alexander strategically chose battle terrains unsuitable for Persian chariots.

• He offered regions the option to surrender peacefully or face brutal conquest.

Alexander's Brutality and Conquests

• Tyre and Gaza refused to surrender, leading to their conquest, execution of military-aged men, and enslavement of women and children.

• In Gaza, Alexander dragged the city commander's body behind his chariot as a warning.

• Egypt surrendered peacefully and crowned Alexander as pharaoh.

• Alexander and his men founded Alexandria in Egypt.

Defeat of Darius III and Continued Expansion

• Alexander achieved a major victory at Gaugamela in Mesopotamia, moving towards Persepolis, the Persian capital.

• He burned Xerxes' royal buildings as retribution.

• Darius III was killed by a local chieftain, who was then executed by Alexander for overstepping his authority.

• Despite the war's initial justification being over, Alexander continued eastward expansion.

Alexander's Eastern Campaigns and Death

• Alexander released Greek soldiers from allied city-states, offering them mercenary service.

• His army conquered Bactria (modern Afghanistan) and crossed the Indus River into modern Pakistan.

• Troops threatened mutiny, leading Alexander to turn back towards Arabia and the Persian Gulf.

• Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC at age 32.

• Theories about his death include excessive drinking and an autoimmune disorder.

Historical Evaluation of Alexander the Great

• Alexander's achievements in a decade made him a legend, though some contemporaries viewed him as a tyrant and warmonger.

• Later Greeks and Romans admired him as a general and philosopher.

• Historians consider him a brilliant leader who pursued personal glory through conquest, tolerating no opposition.

Successor States and the Question of Rule

• Alexander's empire posed the challenge of how to govern such a vast territory.

• Even if Alexander had lived longer, the empire likely would have fragmented due to a lack of solid administration.

• Alexander attempted to merge cultures to create a cultural foundation for the empire.

Strategies for Ruling a Large Empire

• Alexander adopted local customs and institutions to legitimize his rule, such as becoming pharaoh in Egypt.

• He promoted marriage between different peoples to create cultural and familial connections.

• Alexander married Roxanne, daughter of a Bactrian chieftain, and Darius III's daughter, encouraging his officers to do the same.

Cultural Adaptation and Successor States

• Alexander adopted Persian customs and dress, while Greek culture spread throughout the empire, creating the Hellenistic world.

• Greek language and ideas permeated the region.

• The empire fragmented into three main successor states: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Asia/Persia, and Antigonid Macedonia/Greece.

Ptolemaic Egypt

• Egypt was ruled by Ptolemy I, a trusted general of Alexander, who recognized Egypt's defensibility.

• The Ptolemaic dynasty ruled for 300 years until Roman conquest.

• Ptolemy adopted the title of pharaoh, integrating into Egyptian culture.

• Alexandria became the new Athens and a center for intellectual thought.

Seleucid Persia

• Seleucid Asia/Persia was taken by Seleucus, whose half-Persian son later took over.

• It was a large empire, but provinces like Bactria rebelled and spun off.

• Persia and Mesopotamia remained the core of the empire.

• The Seleucid Empire was less centralized than Ptolemaic Egypt.

Antigonid Empire

• The Antigonid Empire in Macedonia/Greece was the least stable and weakest of the three successor states.

• It lacked the wealth of the other two and faced constant rebellions.

• By 215 BC, the Romans were in conflict with the Antigonids, eventually leading to Roman conquest.

Overview of the Hellenistic World

• The Hellenistic world was tied together by a wider Greek culture.

• A Greek diaspora saw colonists emigrate throughout the region.

• Emigration reduced the population of Greece by an estimated 50% between 325 and 225 BC.

• Opportunities and money drew Greeks elsewhere.

• New cities like Alexandria offered opportunities, increasing trade.

• Rulers sought Greeks with knowledge of Greek language, philosophy, science, and culture.

Attributes of the Hellenistic World: Greek Philosophy

• Greek philosophy stemmed from Socrates, who was executed in 399 BC.

• Socrates was a mentor and intellectual foundation for Greek philosophy.

• He was not a professional teacher, lived in poverty, and disdained material possessions.

• Socrates never wrote anything down; his ideas were recorded by his followers.

• He used the Socratic method: asking questions to lead people to new understandings and examine assumptions.

The Socratic Method and Plato

• The Socratic method often upset people and led to Socrates' execution.

• Plato formalized Greek philosophy and established the Academy, a philosophical association.

• The Academy continued for over 900 years.

• Plato wrote dialogues, including the Allegory of the Cave, which illustrates the Socratic method.

Plato's Republic

• Plato's Republic outlines a vision of a perfect government, rejecting democracy.

• Plato was disillusioned with Athenian democracy after Socrates' execution.

• Plato believed people cannot rise above self-interest.

• He proposed a three-class society: producers, auxiliaries, and guardians.

• Guardians are an elite class of educated rulers, including women.

• There is no private property or nuclear families; children are raised communally.

• The most capable guardians rule as philosopher-kings.

Aristotle and the Lyceum

• Aristotle, Plato's student, also criticized democracy as rule by the uneducated.

• Aristotle founded the Lyceum and focused on observation and common sense.

• He studied biology and zoology, collecting information on over 500 animals.

• Aristotle concluded that females were inferior, incomplete males.

Aristotle's Politics and Slavery

• Aristotle's Politics discusses government and citizenship.

• Citizens are those who participate in administration and justice, not those who merely reside in a place.

• Citizens should not be manual laborers, tradesmen, or farmers, as such occupations are ignoble.

• Only children who are not deformed should be allowed to live, reflecting eugenic ideas.

• Marriage should occur at 37 for men and 18 for women.

Aristotle on Slavery

• Aristotle attempts to justify slavery, arguing that some are slaves by nature.

• A slave's life is about serving the master, whereas the master's life is not connected to the slave.

• He compares slaves to tools, dehumanizing them.

• Aristotle argues that authority and organization are inevitable, with some marked from birth to rule.

Hellenistic World Attributes: Urban Life

• Greek urban life was a major attribute of the Hellenistic world.

• Alexander founded or reshaped cities, acting as imperial outposts.

• Urbanization was central, incorporating features like cultural centers, theaters, libraries, and temples.

• Plays and musical performances spread.

• Cities had market centers for grain and trade.

• They were not independent city-states but had municipal governments with assemblies and magistrates.

Laws and Governance in Hellenistic Cities

• Laws differed based on ethnicity; Greeks had one set, non-Greeks another.

• Many assimilated into Greek culture to benefit from more lenient laws.

• Greeks were encouraged to immigrate, holding important political and military posts.

• Monarchies relied on Greeks for bureaucracies.

• Greeks were also recruited as professional soldiers.

• Opportunities existed in construction trades for Greek-style buildings where craftsmen, architects, and artists were in demand.

The Importance of Koine Greek

• Koine Greek, a common international language, facilitated emigration.

• Immigrants often remained in urban areas.

• Native populations learned Greek and assimilated to advance socially.

• Rural areas saw less cultural integration.

Alexandria, Egypt as an Example

• Alexandria, Egypt, was founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BC as a naval base.

• It was positioned strategically on the coast of the Nile Delta with a good harbor.

• It built upon an older settlement and had access to fresh water.

• Alexandria profited from the fall of Tyre, becoming a major seafaring power.

Alexandria as a Center for Scholarship

• Alexandria became a center for Greek scholarship and science.

• The Museum of Alexandria was a research institution staffed and funded by Egyptian kings.

• It included gardens, lecture rooms, and banquet halls.

• Scholars like Euclid and Archimedes studied there.

Alexandria's Library

• The Library of Alexandria existed from 300 BC to 275 AD and was part of the wider Museum of Alexandria.

• It marked a shift in the purpose of libraries: it sought to collect all known books, not just those of one tradition.

• Demetrius, a former Athenian politician, led the library's efforts to collect all knowledge.

• Ships were searched for books, which were then copied for the library, ensuring a universal collection of knowledge.

The Library's Collection and Destruction

• Original poetic texts were acquired from Athens, kept in the library, and copies were returned.

• The library may have contained 200,000 to 700,000 books.

• A branch library was built due to lack of space.

• The main library was destroyed in 48 BC during a conflict involving Cleopatra and Julius Caesar.

• The branch library survived until 400 AD when it was destroyed by Christians.

Major Thinkers: Aristarchus and Euclid

• Aristarchus proposed heliocentrism (sun at the center), a revolutionary idea at the time.

• Euclid, based in Alexandria, is known for his geometry.

• His textbook, Elements of Geometry, was used until the 20th century.

• The Elements synthesized existing geometric ideas.

Eratosthenes and Medicine

• Eratosthenes, director of the Library of Alexandria, is known for geography.

• He accurately measured the Earth's circumference and suggested sailing west to reach eastern Asia.

• Traditional Greek medicine involved the concept of humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile).

• Hippocrates promoted balancing humors through practices like bloodletting.

Herophilus and Human Dissection

• Herophilus, working in Alexandria, practiced human dissection, which was controversial but possible due to Egyptian mummification practices.

• He argued that the brain was the intellectual center, overturning Aristotle who suggested the heart.

• Herophilus distinguished between the nervous and circulatory systems.

Philosophical Trends: Stoicism

• Stoicism emphasized living in accordance with nature and accepting events.

• Stoics believed in participating in politics while accepting limitations.

• They valued discipline, duty, and a virtuous life, often adopted by Romans.

Philosophical Trends: Epicureanism

• Epicureanism emphasized living a life of contentment, pleasure, and freedom from fear and suffering through balance, not excess.

• They did not believe in a natural law, viewing events as random.

• Epicureans were indifferent to the state and community, advocating for ignoring politics as it disturbs the soul.

• They valued self-happiness, akin to modern libertarianism.

Ancient Rome: Introduction

• Rome's story is similar to Greece but with political success in addition to cultural influence.

• Like the Greeks, Rome evolved from a city-state to an empire.

• Unlike Alexander's empire, Rome's endured.

• Carthaginians played a similar role to the Persians in Greek history.

• Individual rights were lost as Rome expanded, similar to Greece.

Three Periods of Roman History

• Monarchal Period: Rome as a city-state.

• Republic Period: Ruled by a senate.

• Empire Period: Ruled by emperors starting with Julius Caesar and Augustus.

Roman Political System and Expansion

• The notes will focus on the early Roman Republic and the creation of the empire, but will make mention of all three stages of Roman History.

• The Punic Wars against Carthage facilitated Rome's transition from a city-state to a Mediterranean power.

• Roman culture, including urban planning and entertainment like gladiator games, spread throughout the empire.

Earlier Civilizations Which Heavily Influenced to the Romans

• The Etruscans, in northern and central Italy, influenced Rome.

• DNA suggests they originated in Turkey.

• By the sixth century BC, they formed a confederation of city-states.

• They were skilled in metalworking due to abundant resources like copper, iron, and tin.

• The Etruscans were also known for their piracy and shipbuilding.

Early Rome

• Contact with Greek colonies in southern Italy occurred.

• Limited knowledge of Etruscans exists due to untranslatable language difficulties.

• Etruscans also took much influence from Greece.

• They had several influences on the later Romans in return.

• These range from armor to architectural and city planning to gladiators and use of the toga.

• Early Roman settlements were based on the Tiber River, a vital resource.

• Archaeological evidence suggests settlement around 1000-800 BC, contemporary with Greece's emergence from its Dark Ages.

Roman Myths

• Three myths explain to us, how the Romans understood themselves. These three are a way for the Romans to say, these values that these figures portrayed, are what we, as Romans, seek to achieve, or what we look for when someone claims to be one of our kind. Three of mythics that helped define what it meant to be Romans, are,: # 1. The Founding,:

  • *DATED BACK TO 753 B.C:

    • Romulus and Remus twin brothers who are born from Mars, the God of War, the mother of both being a descendent from a hero from Rome. A jealous uncle abandoned these twins for death, but a she-wolf saved them and raised these two. In the end, the brothers found it impossible to agree on which way the city should be made when they were able to do so themselves, leading to what we know today as the City of Rome, with Remus killed by Romulus.

2. The Kidnapping of the Sabine Women:

- Occurred because the early Roman population was primarily male, leading to concerns about the city's survival.

- Romans invited the neighboring Sabine tribe to a festival and then abducted their women.

- This act led to war, which was eventually resolved when the Sabine women intervened to stop the fighting, having grown fond of their Roman husbands and families.

- The Sabines then joined the Roman population, and their king, Titus Tatius, ruled jointly with Romulus until Titus's death.

• This event is known as the "Abduction of the Sabine Women" and is considered a foundational legend of Rome.

3. Lucretia:

• Lucretia was a virtuous noblewoman whose tragic story became a catalyst for profound change in ancient Rome.

• Sextus Tarquinius, the arrogant son of the oppressive Roman king Tarquin the Proud, sexually assaulted her.

• After the assault, Lucretia, unwavering in her commitment to honor, revealed the crime to her husband and father.

• To atone for the dishonor and prevent further abuse, she took her own life, setting off a chain of events that would reshape Rome.

• Her self-sacrifice ignited a revolt led by Lucius Junius Brutus, leading to the deposition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic.

• Her story highlights the Roman values of honor, virtue, and resistance to tyranny.

• Lucretia's tragic fate served as a powerful symbol for Roman society, inspiring later generations to value courage and justice over oppression.