https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b06r5xx4

ETHICAL INDIVIDUALISM = Society should be constructed so as to benefit the individual.

EGOTISTICAL INDIVIDUALISM = Self-interest, self-reliance, DIY, bootstraps.

UTILITARIANISM = [Act Utilitarianism] [Rules Utilitarianism] base everything around max happiness

SELF REGARDING FREEDOMS [👨] OTHER REGARDING FREEDOMS [💃]

ISAIAH BERLIN → ‘only acceptable restraints to freedom are those which prevent the individual from curtailing the freedom of others’

J.S MILLS → Libertarian/freedom of thought and emotion/ freedom to pursue harmless immorality/ freedom to unite/ freedom only limited if it harms others/ freedom for the ‘civilised’

RAWLS → Equality of opportunity

BETTY FREIDAN → Educate women as well, do not push image of housewife.

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ORIGINS OF LIBERALISM: [1]

RELIGIOUS ROOTS → Religious protesters like Martin Luther. New protestant Christianity argued individuals interfaced with God with no need for priests/intermediaries. Ideology propagated by the printing press.

ENLIGHTENMENT → Taking individualist ideas from religious circles to the secular world. Mid-seventeenth century around the English civil war. Enlightenment ideas inspired the American/French revolutions and liberty (liberalism). Belief in reason> faith.

JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704) → Two Treaties of Government importing founding liberal documents. Seen as the father of liberalism. The idea of government by consent denied that the state was part of god’s creation “divine right of kings”. Locke saw the state of nature as being underpinned by natural laws liberties and rights. Thought that if government, through taxation, possesses the power to expropriate property citizens are entitled to protect themselves by controlling the composition of the tax-making body - the legislature.

• The Social Contract → Contract is that the state improves conditions and the people give the government the right to exist.

The State of Nature → Idea from Thomas Hobbes. The idea of society before the existence of the state. Locke thought the state of nature was more tolerable than Hobbes did though. Hobbes saw the state of nature as “nasty, brutish and short”. Locke saw the state of nature as being underpinned by natural laws liberties and rights.

The State of Law → Designed to improve on an essentially tolerable situation. State of law is only legitimate if it respects natural rights and laws. Locke saw the state as improving upon natural rights/laws not replacing them.

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CORE IDEAS OF LIBERALISM: [2]

Human Nature (before Enlightenment) → Medieval notion of human nature strongly tied to original sin. Mankind is deeply flawed and imperfect, in order to overcome this one must pray for the grace of God.

Human Nature (liberal Enlightenment) → Human beings have the capacity to bring about progress resulting in further happiness. Humans are inherently rational creatures. Mankind’s innate reason is manifested in debate and discussion. Rationalism = allowing human nature to shape our own destiny. Free will.

Egotistical Individualism → Humans are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own interests. Individuals are both egotistical and also reasonable. Look to advance their own interests but are sensitive to the perspectives of their peers.

Liberals on Society → Hobbes would see human nature as brutal and selfish, that without the state society would collapse. Locke sees rationalism and optimistic individualism and reason as existing without the state so society can exist in this way sans state. Locke sees natural society with natural laws: right to life, property, happiness etc. life without the state could be positive. Mill argued that any society should have the purpose of facilitating and promoting individualism.

The Liberal Economy → Believe property is a fundamental natural right. Private property is at the centre of liberal reasoning. Liberals generally support capitalism. Associated with private enterprise and ownership, Capitalism is oft described as economic liberalism. Adam Smith argues that the ‘invisible hand of market forces would guide traders to success’. Adam Smith loves trickle-down economics which is facilitated by no qualitative/quantitative restrictions on trade. Rising tides lift all boats. But a liberal economic policy could advocate for the existence of markets with some restrictions to ensure distributive justice. [soc-dem]. It relied on a Utilitarian idea of the ECONOMIC MAN whose pleasure derives from the material acquisition.

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STRUCTURE OF A LIBERAL STATE: [3]

Constitutional/limited Government → Social contract, consent to be governed must be presented in a formal constitution. A constitution should be developed through extensive debate and consensus. A constitution should put restrictions on the rules for governing. A constitution should protect the natural rights of the people and maximise freedom [Bill of Rights, first 10 amendments].

Fragmented Government [separation of powers] → “Absolute power corrupts absolutely”. Constitutionalism, limited government. Reflected in the separation of powers [legislature AKA congress, executive AKA presidency, judiciary AKA courts, clergy*, state, local]. Power is separated vertically and horizontally with checks and balances across each of them.

Formal Equality [Rule of Law]→ Liberals believe in foundational equality that everyone is born with equal rights so the liberal state should reflect this. Liberal states should embrace the concept of the Rule of Law. The law applies to everyone indiscriminately. Laws should protect fundamental political rights including the freedom to hold power, freedom of speech and expression etc. There must be a clear distinction between the state versus civil society.

Liberal Democracy → Indirect and representative form of democracy. One person, one vote, one value. Belief in political pluralism, that wide-ranging and rival political movements have the right to run against one another.

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CLASSICAL LIBERALISM: [4]

Government by consent, optimistic view that humans are rational agents, egotistical individualism, egotistical individualism with the desire to restrain self somewhat for cooperation, negative freedom [freedom means the absence of constraint], a state must only act to “protect peace, safety and public good of the people” [Locke], the promotion of a free market economy. It was generally thought only property gave people a proper stake in the state, and therefore only with property should you get rights, as there is more on the line.

JOHN LOCKE → Classical liberal. State of nature, government by consent, see above. Thought that if government, through taxation, possesses the power to expropriate property citizens are entitled to protect themselves by controlling the composition of the tax-making body - the legislature.

Mary Wollstonecraft → Desire to extend core liberal ideas to women. Supported divorce rights, women owning property, protection from domestic violence, anti-monarchist, rejected the divine right of kings in favour of a liberal state. She was almost entirely self-taught, not getting much of a formal education. In 1786 she wrote “Thoughts on the Education of Daughters”. The impact of the French Revolution was big. When she found out women wouldn’t be given full civil rights in France, she created her vindication of the rights of women[ This argued women don’t have equal rights de jure/under law. Focus on rights being more universal. Freedom is an innate natural right rather than something that comes with property.

John Stuart Mill → Mixture of classical/modern liberalism. Saw liberty as a natural right, a critic of the early liberal idea of hedonism. Hedonism is close to utilitarianist thinking [what is good is what creates the most happiness] like Jeremy Bentham. Distinguished between higher and lower pleasure in utilitarianism. Mill was critical of Locke’s view of representative trustee style government - fearing it’d lead to a “tyranny of the majority” [so democracy?] whereby a majority infringes on the rights of minorities. Thought government could become undemocratic if the electorate is ill-educated.

He saw freedom as something that would maximise human progress

Social Darwinism → Idea that there is a meritocracy, those willing and capable to work are rewarded and their material conditions reflect their individual ability. [Samuel-Smiles self help]. Survival of the fittest, natural selection. ‘the drunkard in the gutter is just where he ought to be.’

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MODERN LIBERALISM: [5]

Shift away from egotistical individualism and towards positive freedoms. Moved to developmental individualism, wherein people can seek their own individual goals but they should ultimately focus on personal growth. Thomas Hill Green argued that poverty and inequality should be tackled to “Maintain the conditions without which a free exercise of human faculties is impossible.” Freedom less absence from restraint. FREEDOM TO not freedom from.

Role of the State & Welfare State → A welfare [education/housing/capital/medical treatment] state could be justified to bring about equality of opportunity. John Maynard Keynes argued that the state would need to intervene in the economy to ensure equality of opportunity so shifting away from free market ideals.

Social Liberalism → Based on the fact that society has discriminated against certain minorities, positive discrimination may be necessary to achieve equality. AKA affirmative action.

John Rawls → “Theory of Justice” book. He developed a concept known as the original position. People would construct a society they’d like to live in. People would be put under a “veil of ignorance” so nobody knows whereabouts in the society they’d be placed. Argued that if no one knew where they’d be in this society, everyone would argue for a socioeconomically equal society. Believes in redistributive justice and foundational equality.

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NEOLIBERALISM: [6]

F.A Hayek was a prominent speaker in the book “The Road to Serfdom”. Hayek argued modern liberals strayed away from classical liberalism. Hayek believed that in the circumstances of mass unemployment, government stimulation of the economy is worse in the long-term - Keynes argued the opposite. Often seen as a conservative ideology as it is linked to Thatcher and Reagan. Neo-liberalism is seen as conservative because it is reactionary against the ideas of modern liberalism. It calls for free trade, free markets and minimal government control. Against modern liberal ideas of redistributive justice and the welfare state.

Core ideas of Neo-liberalism → To reapply the economic ideas of free-market capitalism. Private property and negative freedom are central to classical liberalism [and wanted!!!]. HATES the welfare state. Advocates for free trade, free markets and globalisation. Counter-revolutionary inherently,

Civil Society: A realm of freedom, opposed to the state which is a realm of coercion. Its optimistic. Part of the Classical Liberal idea of civil society is [£$] a self-regulating market economy.

Civil Liberties: J.S Mill saw this as core to society. The ability to freely express all your opinions and live your life however you’d like with the limit being things which harm others. This includes the freedom to unite.

Bonus: UTILITARIANISM

That which creates the most net pleasure is best. Intention is unimportant so focus on the results. The action with the least amount of pain is the one with the most utility. Utilitarianism came from Bentham looking at Kant. Kant thought there was no excuse for breaking a moral code so is more similar to [rules utilitarianism]. Utilitarianisms see that an individual is the one who can best determine what happiness is for them but most important is pursuing pleasure for the many since no one individual’s happiness is superior to another’s.

Own actions: Consider ones own actions from a third person spectator perspective, so that you look kindly on the situation but are not biased by your own self-interest/self-preservation excessively.

Act Utilitarianism: The action with the least amount of pain is the one with the most utility

Rules Utilitarianism: Live by rules, long-term, that bring the most happiness for the most people.

FREEDOM: Life liberty and property [Locke]. Life, liberty & the pursuit of happiness [Jefferson]

Individuals know what is best for themselves and freedom means the ability to pursue your own interests. If freedoms cause pain for the many > few then that freedom should be sacrificed.

INDIVIDUALISM: No! Look at decisions in your life like a third party, try and avoid bias while maintaining goodwill. The individual knows what’s best for them to have freedoms you must respect others rights to have them.

RATIONALISM: Total utility of actions and of a whole society is calculatable mathematically. Humans are inherently rational.

EQUALITY: Classical Liberals saw individual companies ability to monopolise on power and permanently exploit workers as an issue and a valid place the state could intervene in,

TOLERANCE: Classical liberals believe in tolerance, that to enjoy a liberty this hinges on the fact that you tolerate others doing the same undisturbed, Political tolerance means the state must tolerate all beliefs and actions that do not directly threaten the security of the state,

LIMITED GOVERNMENT: Don’t see growth of democracy as an answer to concerns about monopolies of power in government, the state is to be a nightwatchman with limited functions like upholding individuals natural rights, overseeing contracts are realised and ensuring the security of the state.

LIBERAL DEMOCRACY: Tyranny of the majority! More working class > upper classes is bad as they’re silly and uneducated!!! A free market economy maximises total utility in society, utilitarians believe in limited government just like in the ideal liberal democracy.

UTILITARIANISM ^^^ CLASSICAL LIBERALISM ^^^

MODERN LIBERALISM!!!!!

The Modern Liberal view of the individual is based on the idea that… negative freedom [freedom from others bothering you] exacerbates social inequalities as the senate does nothing to help the disadvantaged individual. It fosters abilities that would otherwise be dormant.

❤ Equality of opportunity ❤ utilitarian unbiased perspective

£ ❤ NHS, Free school meals, pension, benefits

[ JS MILL]: Balancing individual expression in society with an ultimately rational means of interacting with that society. He liked workers cooperatives and women’s rights.

❤ Developmental Individualism: Ranking pleasures as higher and lower, lower is base needs like food, alcohol and comedy for some reason. Higher is poetry, music, theatre, philosophy.

[TH GREEN]: He challenged classical liberal ideas in saying the free-market cannot naturally enable all individuals the same innate human rights they are guaranteed and so the state should ensure these rights are given and obligations are similarly afforded to all - so that all can foster individual self-realisation. He thought national government should cover labour law, war and security and ensuring temperance. He thought local government should deal with localised issues. Modern liberals still see this in a “teach a man to fish way”/help a man help himself.