Oct. 6

Introduction to Colonial Warfare in Africa

• Examination of the impact of World Wars on colonial rule in Africa.

  • First World War (1914-1918):

  • Represented redistribution of territories under colonial rule.

  • Finalization of the colonial map of Africa.

  • Consolidated colonial dominance.

  • Second World War (1939-1945):

  • Weakened colonial authority.

  • Led to a surge in the decolonization movement in the 1950s.

Historical Context

• Overview of Africa's colonial period:

  • From late 19th century to 1960.

  • Inclusive of both World Wars.

• Colonial period marked by shifting power dynamics and technology.

• Focus on themes:

  • Interwar period leading up to the Second World War.

  • The East African Campaign as a critical, yet underexamined aspect.

Colonial Technology and Control

• Technological Advancements:

  • Emergence of new technologies, especially air power, during the interwar years.

  • Colonial powers finalized conquests using aerial capabilities.

• Military Use of Air Power:

  • Concept of "colonial control" developed by British administrators.

  • Aims to manage colonial populations with limited ground forces.

  • Shift from infantry-based control to air support.

Historical Use of Aircraft

• Limited early use of aircraft in Africa:

  • Italian invasion of Libya (1911):

  • First recorded use of military aircraft for bombardment in a conflict (Libya).

  • World War I:

  • Use of aircraft was minimal in various African campaigns.

  • Notable uses in directing naval gunfire and reconnaissance, though underutilized for broader strategies.

• Interwar period saw increased deployment:

  • Significant increase in aircraft presence and utilization across Africa.

The Use of Air Power in Colonial Control

• Budgetary Motivations:

  • Cost-effectiveness considerations led colonial governments to prefer air power.

  • Desire to use fewer resources while maintaining control over vast territories.

• Case Study - British Somaliland (1920):

  • Constant resistance from the local communities since 1900, led by leaders like Muhammad Abdul Hassan (the "mad mullah").

  • British military efforts were unsuccessful with traditional ground forces.

  • Strategic Shift: Use of aircraft to bomb rebel strongholds, leading to subjugation with minimal ground forces.

  • Successful deployment of a small air force (12 aircraft) to effectively control a vast and resistant area.

  • Winston Churchill termed it "the cheapest war in history."

Impact of Air Power on Military Doctrine

• Significance of the Royal Air Force:

  • Established in 1918 as the first independent air force, serving as a model for future air forces globally.

  • Skepticism existed among military peers due to budget constraints faced by army and navy commanders.

  • Campaigns in Somaliland demonstrated effectiveness and utility of air power, preserving the RAF amid military opposition.

  • Led to the proliferation of air forces during the 1920s, influenced by the RAF's model.

Air Power in Southern Africa

• Application of Air Power:

  • Used to suppress domestic resistance, including the 1922 Rand Revolt in South Africa:

  • Rebellion of white mine workers against perceived job competition from black workers.

  • Air power deployed to subdue the revolt, leading to political ramifications for Prime Minister Jan Smuts.

  • Other rebellions, such as the Bundlesmarck Rebellion in Southwest Africa, also suppressed through similar tactics.

Theoretical Frameworks of Air Power

• Julio Douhet's Theories:

  • Offered predictions that future wars would depend primarily on air power, diminishing the role of ground and naval forces.

  • His ideas, while revolutionary, could not have anticipated advancements in anti-aircraft defenses.

Conflicts in North Africa

• Moroccan Resistance and the Riff War (1920-1927):

  • Spanish and French colonial powers faced significant local resistance, led by Abdel Karim Alkabi.

  • The conflict highlighted the challenges both powers faced against rugged terrains and well-organized locals.

  • The formation of the Spanish Legion was a response to escalating threats; significant individuals, like Francisco Franco, emerged from this conflict.

• Italian Campaign in Libya (1911-1931):

  • Italian ambitions in Libya mirrored broader colonial aspirations, driven by aspirations to reclaim a pseudo-empire.

  • The Serenica Rebellion against Italian rule highlighted fierce local resistance.

  • The Italians employed brutal counterinsurgency tactics, including concentration camps, highlighting atrocities committed during the colonial period.

Conclusion of the Italy-Ethiopia War (1935-1936)

• Motivations Behind the Italian Invasion:

  • Aimed to avenge losses from the Battle of Adowa (1896) and expand imperial interests.

  • Mussolini's vision of Italian imperial resurgence influenced military strategy.

• Technological Superiority:

  • Italian forces benefitted from modern mechanized warfare, including aircraft and tanks.

  • Ethiopian forces, despite numerical superiority, lacked modernization and faced severe disadvantages.

International Response

• League of Nations:

  • Both Ethiopia and Italy were members; invasion violated principles established by the League.

  • Lack of serious international intervention (Britain and France) highlighted the impotence of the League at that time.