Unit 4 Notes

Unit 4 Notes

Devolution - Movement of power from the central government to the regional government

within a state. It is caused by ethnocultural, economic, and spatial forces. For example...

- Scotland wants independence from the EU and ownership of oil resources.

- Spain (the Basque and Catalonia each want their own economic autonomy)

- Belgium - Flemish (Dutch) in the north and Walloons (French) in the south

- Czechoslovakia - Velvet Divorce 1993

- Sudan - Muslim north and Christian south.

- Nigeria has 250 different ethnicities.

- Sri Lanka - Tamils, Hindu minority fight for independence from the Sinhalese Buddhist

majority.

- Croat vs Serb conflict after the leader Tito’s death and the communism collapse, many

small countries became independent.

- Bosnia - Civil war between Muslims, Serbs, and Croatians

- France - Corsica, small minority of islands that want autonomy

- Brazil - Rio Grande Do Sul, Santa Catarina, Parana demand independence to make a

Republic of Pampas.

Shapes of States:

- Compact: Efficient, equal distance from center to edge, ideal state shape with capital at

center, Ex: poland, hungary, austria, germany, bhutan

- Elongated: Potential isolation, long, poor internal communication, more access to

natural resources, Ex: chile, malawi, gambia, panama, italy, normway, vietnam

- Prorupted: Success of disruption, compact with large projecting section, either to

separate two states or provide access to resources. Ex: thailand, namibia and caprivi strip,

dem, republic of congo.

- Perforated: State completely surrounds another, Ex: lesotho in south africa, vatican

city and italy.

- Fragmented: Problematic, several discontinuous pieces, seperated by water or other

state, Ex: fiji, indonesia, russia, UK, US, france, australia (has tazmania exclave)

- Landlocked states - Lacks direct outlet to sea, surrounded by other countries, Ex:

common in africa, belarus, mongolia, chad, paraguay

Gerrymandering - Redrawing legislative boundaries to favor the party in power, illegal in

1985

- Wasted vote: Spreads opposition voters across districts so they are the minority.

- Excess vote: Concentrates the opposing voters into a few different districts.

- Stacked vote: Link areas of like minded voters into oddly shaped boundaries.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) - treaty 1982

- Nautical mile - 1.15 land miles

- Dispute about who owns islands between Philippines, Indonesia, China, and Malaysia

- 4 Zones

- Territorial sea - 12 nautical miles for fishing, innocent passage

- Contiguous zone - 24 nautical miles,

- Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) - 200 nautical miles, state can explore and

manage natural resources

- High seas - beyond EEZ, open to all states

Political Organizations

- UN (United nations) - US didn't originally join, Taiwan is most populous state not in

the UN, replaced league of nations, purpose is to keep and promote world peace

Military Organizations

- NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) - 16 democratic states, US, Canada, 14

Europeans, meant to prevent spread of communism of soviets, conflict w/ Muslims

- Warsaw Pact - Military agreement among communist east Europe to defend each other,

provide soviets with allied states.

- United Nations (+political) - Created at the end of WW2, facilitates discussion of

international problems.

Economic Organizations

- EU (European Union) - 27 countries, promote development of members after WW2,

made Euro, used to have barriers on trade but those were removed.

- COMECON - Promoted trade and sharing of natural resources, included 7 eastern

Europe communist states from the Warsaw Pact plus Cuba, Mongolia, and Vietnam.

- ASEAN(association of southeast asian nation) - indonesia, malaysia, philippines,

singapore, thailand, made during vietnam war against communism

- OPEC(organization of petroleum exporting countries) - middle east countries, control oil

production

- NAFTA(North American Freetrade agreement) - increased avocado consumption,

Mexico, US, canada

Unit 4 Vocabulary

State - Area organized into a political unit and ruled by a government, has a permanent

population, occupies a defined territory, Ex: largest - russia, smallest - monaco.

Sovereignty - Inner affairs of a region are independent from control by other states.

Nation - A group with common culture.

Nation-state - Population of a country is homogeneous, Ex: Denmark, Slovenia, Japan, Iceland.

Stateless nation - Ethnic group without a state, Ex: Kurds in middle east.

Microstate - Sovereign state with small population and land, Ex: Monaco.

- China - Conflict between whether Taiwan is independent from China or not.

- Western Sahara - Morocco claims Sahrawi Republic while most surrounding states

consider it independent.

- Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, UK all claim the south pole.

City-state - First states, made of towns and surrounding countryside, walls made to show

boundaries, some with military power take over such as the Roman empire, first one arose in

Mesopotamia.

Self-determination - Concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves.

Satellite states - Dominated by another state politically and economically.

Multi-state nation - Nation stretches across borders of states, Ex: north and south Korea.

Multi-ethnic state - State with more than one ethnicity, Ex: US.

Multinational state - Country with more than one ethnicity with self determination, Ex:

Russia’s caucasus region between black and caspian seas with the azeris, armenians, and

georgians.

Decolonization - Colonial settlements become independent nations, Ex: 13 colonies.

Colony - Territory legally tied to state rather than being independent, Ex: puerto rico, not a part

of congress but is home to US citizens.

Colonialism - Country establishes settlement to impose its politics, economy, and culture on

that territory.

Imperialism - Control of territory already occupied by another society.

Ethnonationalism - Ethnicity wants its own sovereignty.

Morphology - States geographical shape affects spatial cohesion and political viability,

Ex:chile skinny.

Berlin conference - 1884-85, european nations claim Africa and created superimposed

borders.

Versailles peace conference - Leaders after WW1 redraw the map of Europe.

Apartheid - Domination over a certian race, black in south and Southwest Africa, now Nambia,

1948-90.

Cold war - Diplomatic, political, military rivalry between US and soviets, 1945-1991.

Organic theory - Theory that states are born and they need nourishment and living space to

survive.

Heartland theory - Mackinder, early 1900s, best base for world domination is the eurasian

heartland.

Rimland theory - Spykman, 1944, best base for global domination is eurasian rimland.

Choke point - A geographical land feature such as a valley or water way narrowing causing a

decrease in forces making their way through.

Centripetal forces - Bind or hold together, ex: strong leadership, external threat, education,

democracy, russian language for soviet union.

Centrifugal forces - Divide or tear state, devolutionary forces, ex: culture/religious/linguistic

differences.

State - Formal name for country, defined bordes, sovereign gov, recognized, permanent

population.

Democracy - Citizens elect leaders and can run for office.

Autocracy - Country run by ruler’s interests.

Anocracy - Not fully democratic, mix of two.

Unitary system - Centralized control, no local power, works best in nation states with less

cultural differences, smaller states, ex: france, european countries, north korea, kenya, rwanda,

china.

Confederal systems - Less central power, lots of power to states, confederate states

Federal systems - Between unitary and confederal, ex: United states, canada, brazil, india,

belgium.

Reapportionment - Assigning representation based on population every census.

Redistricting - Redrawing district boundaries so each district contains the same amount of

people.

Frontier - Zone no state exercises complete political control, rather than boundaries separating.

Border conflicts - Positional, territorial, resource, functional.

Shatterbelt - Distress bc of cultural/ethnic conflict, ex: israel, kashmir, east europe during cold

war.

Physical Boundaries - Desert (Sahara desert), mountain (himalayas india), water ( rio grande

R.).

Cultural boundaries - Geometric (straight line drawn on map, canada and US border),

religious, language, ethnic (england,france,portugal,spain boundaries, bc of language or

religion), Ex: pakistan and india.

Delimited boundary - States disagree about interpretation of documents that define a

boundary, Ex: Argentina and Chile's borders on the Andes mountains, drawn on map to show

limits of space.

Antecedent boundary - Result of area becoming population and gaining value, existed before

present settlement occurred and the culture arrived, Ex: US and canada, Ohio R.

Subsequent boundary - Developed with the evolution of cultural change, Ex: irsh catholic and

pretestant northern ireland, velvet divorce in Czechoslovakia.

Open boundary - Boundary people can cross w/o obstacles, Ex: EU allows people to travel

between member states.

Natural boundary - Based on physical geography, Ex: rivers like Rio Grande.

Militarized boundary - Heavily fortified boundaries, discouraged crossing of people, good,

info.

Superimposed boundary - Political, dividing ethnically similar population by a more powerful

country, cause loss of culture, creation of new culture, migration, government change, ineffective

governance, multi state nation, multinational state Ex: Kurds in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Africa in

the Berlin Conference.

Relic boundary - Historic boundary, no longer used/nonfunctional, Ex:berlin wall germany,

great wall China.

Defined boundary - Established by legal document, divides two entities, invisible line.

Demarcated boundary - Identified on physical landscape, sign or complex system, ex: DMZ,

berlin wall.

Geometric boundary - Straight line, doesn’t follow physical features, large-egypt and libya,

small-suburbs.

Irredentism - Country wants to annex similarly ethnic portion of another country, Ex: Hitler

invading czechoslovakia, Somalia - ethiopia conflict over somalis, serbians in bosnia, kashmir

region in india, reich trying to connect all german speaking people in europe.

Allocational dispute - Disagree over resources at borders, Ex: iraq and Kuwait over rumaila

oil field.

Functional disputes - Disagree over policies applied along boundary,immigration, Ex: mexico

border.

Definitional boundary dispute - Two or more parties disagree on interpretation of legal doc or

map, Ex: chile and argentina.

Locational boundary dispute - Conflict over location or place of boundary, Ex: egypt and

sudan

Operational boundary dispute - Conflict over operation, Ex: is migration allowed?, US and

mexico.

Enclaves - Country or part of a country surrounded by territory of another, Ex: lesotho.

Exclaces - Part of the country is separated from the rest.

Forward capital - Capital city positioned near the international border, confirms the state’s

determination to maintain presence.

- Capitals that moved somewhere after 1950: Brazil, Nigeria, Pakistan.

Geopolitics - Study of interplay between international political relations and environmental

context.

Supranationalism - 3 or more countries form unions for economic, political or cultural

reasons.

Terrorism - Systematic use of violence to indimidate populations, Ex: 9-11, afrghanistan and

pakistan harbor al-qaeda terrorists.

UNITS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

There are a number of polirical geography terms such as nation and stdte that we use in everyday

speech as synonyms. However, the technical definitions of these terms have specific and impor-

tant meaning in the geography of politics. Heret how to keep them straight:

Countr;,: an identifiable land area

Nation: a population with a single culture

State: a population under a single government

Nation-state: a single culture under a single government

A nation is the same as a cukure group. "State" implies that there is a sovereign ter-

ritory. Sovereignty generally means that a state is fully independent from outside con-

trol, holds territory, and that it has internationd recognition from other states or the United

Nations. Use these examples to keep the differences in your mind:

ff*Sw ,,,, , .,'.l l ":''" '::i:'t :

England, Scotland,'Wales, Northern

Ireland, Isle of Man, and the Channel

Islands

United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern

Ireland

Great Britain or the

British Isles

Han, Manchu, Zhuang, Miao, Uygur,

Tibetan, and others

People's Republic of China China

Anglo-Canadian, Qu€b6cois, and

First Nations

Canada (former name

Dominion of Canada)

Canada

French, German, Italian, and

Romansch

C o nfo e derati o He laet i ca

(in Latin)

Switzerland

(French: Suisse)

(German: Schweiz)

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These examples, the United States, and most other sovereign states are multi-national states

made up of a number of different nations represented by the multitude of culture groups

who have migrated and intermixed around the world. Multinational srates, sometimeslalled

multiethnic statesr are most common in the Americas, where there are no nation-states.

Nation-States

There are a number of

a singular government.

nation-states in which one culture group is represented by

Many are smaller stares or island countries. Although no

nation-state is truly made up ofonly one cultural group, places such as Japan, Iceland, Tonga,

Ireland, Portugal, and Lesotho (pronounced Lesu-too) are places that have nor seen Permanent

invasion or mass immigradon from other culture groups in their histories.

The term nation-state is also applied, theoretically, to multinational states where the state has

come to rePresent a singular and contemporary culture, as opposed to the ancient cultures

from which the population originates. One could argue that there is an identifiable American

culture in the United States, or a unique Brazilian culture in Brazil. In both of these cases, rhe

new political nation is the result of the blending of several culture groups together along with

the idea of political nationalism.

Nationalism

Nationalism can derive from an existing culture group that desires political represenration or

independence, or from a political state that bonds and unifies culture groups. Politicians use

nationalism as motivation to support the state and oppose foreign or other political infuences.

Individuals tend to take pride in their nationalist identities, even though they or their neighbors

may be from a mix of different ethnic backgrounds.

Stateless Nations

Although many culture groups are politically represented or are part of larger political entities,

there are some stateless nations, where a culture group is not included or allowed a share in

the state political process. Here are a few examples.

Kurds are an ethnic group spread across northern Iraq, western Iran, eastern Syria, and south-

eastern Turkey. A semi-autonomous Kurdistan has existed in Iraq since the U.S.Jed invasion

in 2003. However, full independence is limited geopolitically due to Turkish governmenr resis-

tance to their sovereignty, based upon Kurdish Marxist rebels, the PKK, who have been fight-

ing in Turkey for several decades. Since the start of the Syrian Civil Var, Kurds have taken

territory and started a semi-autonomous government.

Basques are an ethnic group in northern Spain and sourhwestern France who do not have

Celtic or Latin cultural or language roots. In fact, their people's origin is poorly understood by

historians. Spain has granted limited autonomy to the Basque region around the city of Bilbao,

but many Basque nationalists seek full independence and statehood. A militant group; ETA,

has used terror ractics to fight against Spanish rule.

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cED 4.2

Political Processes

6. Political Patterns and Processes 247

cED 4.7

Forms of Governance

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Hmong are mounrain peoples who have existed in rural highlands isolated from others in

Laos, Viet.ram, Thailand, and southern China. However, their alliance with the United States

against the Communists during the Vietnam 'War caused many families to leave their tra-

ditional homeland. Today many Hmong (pronounced "mung") have resettled in the upper

Midwestern states of 'S7'isconsin and Minnesota. Hmong immigrants are featured in the 2008

film Gran Torino.

Other stateless nations include the Karen (primarily of Myanmar), Roma (or Romani),

Karelians, Tartars, Tuvans, Chechens, Sami, Uygurs, Tibetans, and Tamils. Some groups have

been granted limited auronomy, while others have active nationalist and independence move-

-.n,r. See the section on irredentism in this chapter for more on independence and sover-

eignty in the post-Soviet era.

ORGANIZATIONS OF STATES

The Big Fellas

Federal states and confederations are a common approach to government. The United States,

Australia, Canada, Germany, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico are all confederations of several

smaller states or provinces under a federal government. Like an umbrella, the federal state

provides military protecrion, administers foreign diplomacy, and regulates trade as well as a

,r.rmbet of internal administrative (executive branch), legislative, and judicial services across

the country. The states each have their own governments, legislatures, regulations, and services.

The overlapping roles in the administration may seem redundant, but each has its own divi-

sion of responsibilities. For instance, the federal government regulates interstate trade, whereas

states can make rules about the sale of goods within each state.

Many other states adhere to a unitary system with a single centralized government' '\tr7hile

some power may be delegated to regional or local governments, the ultimate authority lies

with the central government. The United Kingdom is one example: although Scotland,'Wales,

and Northern Ireland all have some degree of autonomy, that power is granted-and may be

altered or overturned-by the British Parliament. Other states, such as Ireland, grant no sub-

national power at all. Many smaller states are able to adhere to the unitary system due to their

size, but the largest unitary state by far is the vast Peoplet Republic of China.

The Wee Fellas

At the other end of the international scale, microstates are sovereign states that despite their

very small size still hold the same position as much larger states like the United States or

Canada. Many are island states, ports, or city-states, or they sit landlocked with no access to

the sea. The following table provides a list of microstates that are full members of the United

Nations (UN):

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Andorra Landlocked

Antigua and Barbuda Islands

Bahrain Islands

Barbados Island

Comoros Islands

Djibouti Port

Dominica Island

Grenada Islands

Liechtenstein Landlocked

Luxembourg Landlocked

Malta Islands

Monaco Port and City-state

Nauru Island

Palau Islands

St. Kitts and Nevis Islands

St. Lucia Island

Samoa (Western Samoa) Islands

San Marino Landlocked

Singapore Port, Islands, and Ciry-srate

The Vatican City is also a sovereign microstate but is not a member of the UN. It is not a

nation-state despite the common religion of its residents, who are mostly clergy drawn from

around the wodd.

Autonomous Regions

Certain parts of certain nations have been granted freedom from central authority, usually

for historical, geographical, religious, or linguistic reasons. These are known as autonomous

regions, and they occupy a special place in human geography. For example, the Basque region

of northeastern Spain boasts its own language, Euskara, which is thousands of years old and is

unrelated to any of the Romance languages rhat surround it. The Basques are technically part

of Spain but govern themselves, with little obligation to Madrid. Semi-autonomous regions

have the same freedom as autonomous regions, but to a lesser degree.

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Multi-State 0rganizations

Supranationalism is the concept of two or more sovereign states aligned together for a common

p.ripor.. A number of supranational organizations have been formed for the purposes of

irade alliances, military cooperation, and diplomacy. The largest of these is the United Nations

(193 member states) whose purpose is primarily diplomatic. The UN also provides a number of

services internationally through its'World Health Organization (\fHO), Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO), Development Program (UNDP), International Children's Education

pu"a QNICEF), peacekeeping forces, and other smaller directorates such as the UN High

Commissariat for Refugees (UNHCR). Each of these units is an important supranational

organization in its own right.

Detailed Example: The EU

Another important supranational organization with several purPoses is the European Union

(EU). In 2013, theEU grew to 28 member states with a small number of applicant states awaiting

membership. The EU was named in 1991 under the Treaty of Maastricht, which expanded the

organizationt role beyond trade relations. Prior to that, the European Coal and Steel Community

(created in 1957) helped strengthen steel production between Italy, France, Luxembourg, Belgium,

and the Netherlands. The success of this limited free-trade network encouraged the development

of the European Economic Community, "the Common Market" or EEC. By 1973, the EEC

eliminated all tariffs on trade goods between its 12.W'estern European member states.

Today, the EU acts like a federal government for Europe but lacks some of the administra-

tive aspects of other confederations like the United States. The modern EU serves five main

PurPoses:

Free-trade union: No taxes or tariffs are charged on goods and services that cross

the internal borders of the EU. By eliminating these fees, European businesses can

save money and be more economically competitive with the United States and

Japan.

Open-border policy: Between EU member states, there are no longer any border-

control stations for immigration or customs inspections. People and commercial

vehicles cross internal EU borders without stopping. This began with the Schengen

plan in 1985 when West Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the

Netherlands opened their borders to one another. Workers can now take jobs in

other EU states without applying for work permits (some professions may be pro-

tected from this).

Monetary union: In 2000, the first EU members began converting to the Euro

and phasing out their old forms of money. This eliminated the costs of currency

exchange fees. Only 12 members retained their own currencies. The United

Kingdom kept the British pound due to its high yxlus-csnysrting to the less-

valuable Euro would have caused significant financial problems in the United

Kingdom. New member srares have to meet strict EU economic regulations before

they can join the monetary union. However, the world financial crisis of 2008

revealed some weaknesses of the Euro as indebted countries were unable to devalue

the Euro as they had been able to with national currencies. Countries like Greece,

Ireland, and Portugal received bailouts as part ofthe Eurozone crisis. These events

have forced counrries to question the desirability of using the Euro currency.

a

a

a

' Judicial union: The European Court ofJustice in Luxembourg provides a legal

venue for cases between litigants in separate EU member states. '\tr7ith the increase

in cross-border trade and labor, there were bound to be lawsuits and conrract

issues that would require the EUt decisions. In addition, a European Court of

Human Rights has been established to preserve civil rights regardless of their

member states' local laws.

' Legislative and regulatory bodies: The 751-seat EU Parliament was established

to ProPose and approve laws within the union. The European Commission is

a seParate council with one seat for each member state. Each year the presi-

dency shifts to one member state, allowing it to set the year's policy agenda. The

European Commission also acts as the executive branch of the union to enact

Programs and enforce regulations set by the EU Parliament and Council. The EU

Commission president is appointed by the European Council.

In sum, EU governance has been successful in creating a singular economy through free trade,

open borders, free movement of labor, free exchange of currency, and a level playing field for

business and labor in terms of laws and regulations. Instead of many small economies, the EU

acts as one state economy that is highly competitive with China, the United States, India, the

Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and Japan. In terms of gross domestic product (GDP),

theEUhadaneconomyof$17.1 trillionandChinahadaneconomy of $17.7 triilion asof 2021.

Something Botten in Denmark?

Despite the economic success of the EU, a number of problems have emerged from the per-

spective of its citizens and member states. Even rhough free trade, open borders, and the Euro

reduced the cost ofdoing business and reduced the cost ofgoods and services, the EU govern-

ment's main source of revenue is a standard 20 percent sales tax, known as the value-added

tax (VAT). Many complain that the cost of EU governance has significantly increased the cost

of many items in Europe. Member-state governments have also complained that the European

courts have threatened the sovereignty ofnational and local courts and laws.

Likewise, open borders have made it difficult to control crime and terrorism. Once someone gers

inside the EU's borders, he or she can move around freely regardless of citizenship, making it

difficult to stoP and apprehend criminals. Externally, the EU has had to strengrhen its borders

against undocumented immigration and the fow of contraband. The term Fortress Europe has

been used to describe the concept of sealing EU borders. This is a rather difficult problem, since

many of the eastern borders of the EU are undefended and only road and rail border crossings

are inspected by immigration or cusroms officers.

In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU in a referendum commonly called "Brexit." Despite

the EU's economic success, the issues of immigration, open borders, and British sovereignty in

the face of an increasingly centralized European government led many voters to favoi a split

with the EU.

No Gonstitution for You! Yet...

In terms of further expansion of the EU system of governance, a European Union

Constitution was proposed for ratification in 2004. The complex 65,000 word documenr was

6, Political Patterns and Processes 251

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You ileed to

Knowthe EU

The EU is a common topic

in both the multiple-

choice and f ree-response

question sections. Make

sure you are familiar with

allthings EU.

cED 4.3

Political Power and

Territoriality

AP Human Geography Prep

poorly understood by the citizens and members of parliament who had to vote on

the constitution. Concepts like a common EU foreign policy among all states were

unclear. Many voters and politicians were concerned about the continued loss of

sovereignty for member-state governments. Political leftists saw the constitution es

being too pro-business. And right-wing sentiment against Turkey in the EU also

resulted in "No" votes against ratification. The constitution was voted down in the

Netherlands and France in 2005, thus forcing the European Commission to gq

back to the drawing board.

SPATIAL CONCEPTS OF POLITICAT GEOGRAPHY

Territoriality is the expression of political control over space. The concept of the state implies

rhat the government controls land and the people who live there. Citizenship is the legal iden-

tity of a p.rron based on the state where he or she was born or where he or she was naturalized

as an immigrant. Keep in mind that when citizens go outside their state's political

borders, they retain their citizen status and thus become an extension of their state

(unless they apply for new citizenship as immigrants). This is why we strictly define

the state as a population represented by a single government, without mentioning

territory. However, dont forget that space mafters; it's not much of a state if it has

no land, which can happen in the case of a government in exile, such as the Dutch

or Polish governments during'World \07ar II.

Political Borders

The borders between political srates and political sub-unit areas (counties, parishes, parliamen-

tary districts, and city limits) are strictly finite lines. Political boundaries, as expressions of

political control, must be definable and clear. Sometimes the physicd geography, such as riv-

i6 or oth.r water bodies, defines boundaries, and sometimes borderlines are measured surveys

based on trearies or other agreements between states. Non-physical boundaries often refect

cultural divisions, but these are not always accurate. Such borders can be the result of aris-

tocraric land holdings from Feudalistic eras, or they can be the front lines at the cessation of

armed confict between 51xgss-[rs\Msver, treaties can change these lines.

Outside the Lines

Countries with large expatriate populations (citizens living outside of their borders) have to

provide consular services in large foreign cities. Citizens living in foreign countries often have

North Atlantic Tieaty Organization (NATO) Military

of Petroleum Countries (OPEC) Oil Pricing Cartel

Organization of African Union (OAU) Regional Diplomary

Government Loans \7orld Bank and Internationd Monetary Fund (IMF)

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to visit their countryt embassies or consulates to process legal documents, passports, and visa

applications. \flhen citizens get trapped in war zones or disasters in foreign countries, itt up to

their governmentt diplomats and military to get them out.

Enclave and Exclave

Borderlines may be finite, but they can becorne quite irregular in pattern especially where the

cultural borderlines become fuzry. An enclave is a minoriry culture g.orrp .Lrr..nirated inside

a country that is dominated by a different, larger culure group. This could be as simple as an

ethnic neighborhood or a large area such as Qu6bec. As pan of rhe 1994 Dayton Peace Accords,

several enclaves were formally established within Bosnia to separate warring Serb, Croat, and

Muslim communiries.

A1 gxclave is a fragmented piece of sovereign territory separated by land from the main part

of the statet territory. Occasionally, neighboring srares arrempt to claim exclaves in the name

of cultural nationalism. Often, armed conficts result, but sometimes diplomatic negotiations

re-sult in official Permanent exclaves. Other times, states purchase territory or receive ir"g*.r,,

of territory under peace treaties. Islands are not considered exclaves. Examples of exclaves follow.

Water Borders at Sea

Historically, borders at sea were poorly defined, and each country had its own laws regarding

where territorial claims began and ended. Often, more than one sovereign state claimed the

same piece of water. This all changed in 1982 with rhe United Nations Conference on the

Law of the Seas (UNCLOS), which proposed standard oceanic boundaries for all UN mem-

ber states, and was fully ratified in 1g94. The border system under UNCLOS is in the follow-

ing two parts:

Territorial sea: Sovereign territory includes the area ofsea from shore out to the l2-nautical-

mile limit. 'STithin 12 nautical miles, all the laws of a country apply.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Exclusive economic rights from shore out to the 200-

nautical-mile limit. \Tithin 200 nautical miles of its shores, a state controls all aspects of natu-

ral resource exploration and extraction. This includes fisheries, oil and gas produition, salvage

operations, and permits for such activity. Two hundred nautical miles is beyond the shallow

water continental shelf in almost all cases.

Alaska United States Canada

Point Roberts United States Canada

Kaliningrad (Koenigsberg) Russia Lithuania, Belarus

Nagorno-Karabakh Armenia Azerbaijan

Nakhchivan Azerbaijan Armenia

Cabinda Angola Dem. Rep. of Congo

Musandam Oman United fuab Emirates

Llivia Spain France

Ceuta and Melilla Spain Morocco

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I nrz 2oonm Boundaries

[ lnternationd Vaters or .Hig[ S€as',

n Iand

EEZ Boundaries and High Seas offthe Eastern United States

The high sezus are technically outside of the l2-mile limit. Past that line, cruise ships can open

their cisinos and ship captains gain the authority to marry couples or arrest thieves onboard

their ships. These are provisions made under admiralty law, a part of international law that

dictates iegal procedures on the high seas. Beyond the 200-mile limit, international fishing

fleets can hook or net wharever ocean life they choose and in unregulated amounts.

The only exceptions are when international treaties limit the capture of certain species. The

1986 Internatiooal Whaling Commission moratorium on commercial whale hunts banned

whaling after centuries of hunting dangerously depleted populations. Norway and Japan still

hunt whales, claiming their hunts are for scientific research. This claim is heavily criticized by

environmental organizations who state that whale meat still makes its way to market in these

countries.

RUSSIA

Chukotka

I.]NITED

STATES

Alaska

International Political Borders Compared to EEZs and Territorial Seas

Political Borders on the Map, t\lot EEZs

'S7hen

you look at the map above, you can see that normal polirical boundaries and the real

EEZ boundaries are very different. The cartographic borders are often rectangular around

islands. In reality, territorial seas and EEZs create circular boundaries, especially around islands

-each of which extends a countryt EEZ out another 200 naurical miles.

0verlapping Borders at Sea and Disputes

The UNCLOS makes provisions for a UN arbitration board ro settle disputes regarding

boundaries at sea. Often, countries with overlapping sea claims generally agree ro split the

Iines halfivay. W.here it becomes difficult is when uninhabited small islers, exposed reefs, and

sandbars above water are claimed by more than one counrry. It can take years of negotia-

tion to settle such disputes, and occasionally troops are deployed to precariously small pieces

of land, just to claim rights to the surrounding EEZ. For example, two areas of the South

China Sea, the Spratly Islands and the Paracel Islands, are claimed concurrently by China,

Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei. Oil is believed to be under both

island groups, and these are areas of potential future armed confict if arbitration fails.

6. Political Patternsand Processes | 255

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Boundary 0rigins and Border TyPes

This topic can be confusing due to the varied terminology used to describe pro-

cesses behind boundary creation and the types of borders that exist. Lett see if we

can simplify this:

Boundary Origins

Antecedent: Boundary lines that exist from prehistoric times

Relic Former state boundaries that still have political or cultural meaning

Subsequent: Lines resulting from confict or cultural changes, such as war and migration

Superimposed: Lines laid down for political reasons over existing cultural boundaries

Boundary Process

Definition:'W'hen borders are claimed, negotiated, or captured

Delimitation:'When borders are put on the map

Demarcation:'\U7hen markers are placed on the ground to show where borders lie

Border Type

Physicah Natural boundaries-rivers, lakes, oceans, mountains, or deserts

Cultural Estimated boundaries between nations, ethnic grouPs, or tribes

Geometric Boundaries surveyed mostly along lines of latitude and longitude

Border Disputes

Definitional: 'When border treaties are interpreted two different ways by states

Locationat \7hen the border moves, like a river changing course or a lake drying up

Operational: \7'hen borders are agreed on, but passage across the border is a problem

Allocational:'When a resource lies on two sides of a border.'Who gets what?

lmportant Historical Examples

Antecedent French-spanish border along the Pyrenees

Reliq Scotland-England border after The Act of Union in 1652

Subsequent: German-Polish border after 1945; Kdiningrad to the USSR in 1946

Superimposed: Sub-Saharan Africa after the Berlin Conference of 1884; Yugoslavia

and Iraq after the 1919 Theaty of Versailles (Each of these resulted in recent

conficts.)

cED 4.4

Defining Political

Boundaries

It's Not (JustlWhat

You Know...

Hemember, it's not

enough to simply

memorize definitions.

You must be able to

relate concepts to

historical and current

events on the AP Human

Geography Exam.

256 | For more free content, visit PrincetonReview.com

lmportant Historica! Examples:

Definitiond: Russian-Japanese Kuril Islands under Soviet control in 1945

Locationaft India-Bangladesh territory along the Ganges-Brahmapurra fuver Delta

operationall New passport requirements for entry into the Unired States after

September 11, 2001

Allocational: Mexico-United States river allocations for irrigation and drinking water

on the Colorado River and Rio Grande (Rio Bravo)

cED 4.8

Defining Devolutionary

Factors

Border Gonflicts: Frontier War or Peace?

Historically, when land was either unexplored or unsurveyed, the term frontier

was used to describe the open and undefined territory. There are a few disputed

small frontier regions in the world today. The only remaining large land frontier is

Antarctica, where the Antarctic Treaty (1959) has set aside the conrinent (actually

several large islands covered by an ice cap) for scientific research and prohibits any

military action and commercial mineral or energy extraction.

Peaceful Resolution to Border Gonflicts

Prior to the 1846 Oregon Treaty that set the border at 49" North latitude, rhe wesrern border

between Canada and the United States was undefined. Much of the frontier region of what

is today Montana, Idaho, Oregon, W'ashington, Alberta, and British Columbia was claimed

concurrently by Great Britain and the United States. Diplomacy was the key to a peaceful

settlement of the border dispute, but it nearly led to war as many in the United States were

heard to say, "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!"-the claim that the U.S. border should be 54"40'

North. Not all parts of the world have been so lucky to resolve their frontier claims peacefully.

In fact, many border treaties have led to violence later on.

Postcolonial Boundary Gonfl icts

An international example of a former frontier dispute that has led to confict today is in Central

Africa. The Conference of Berlin (1884) was a diplomatic meeting between the European

colonial powers to set the internal political boundaries in Africa, which was one of the last areas

of European colonial expansion. Most colonies were in coastal areas, but the interior of the

continent had only recently been explored by Europeans. Diplomats at the conference went about

carving up the continent's interior and settling disputed claims. The final agreed-upon map is

very similar to the political boundaries in Africa today. However,.rhere are many problems with

the 1884 border design that did not emerge until after decolonization in the late 20th century.

Most African colonial states achieved self-determination as fully independent sovereign states

between 1960 and the early 1990s.

AP Human Geography Prep

6. Political Patterns and Processes 257

cED 4.9

Challenges to

Sovereignty

AP Human Geography Prep

The main problem with the European-set boundaries in Africa is that they do not match the cul-

tural boundaries. This superimposed boundar,, situation is what Africans refer to as the Tyranny

ofthe Map. Instead of the large artificial nation-states that the Europeans envisioned, the reality is

that political allegiance in sub-saharan Africa is based upon tribal identiry and at a much smaller

relative scale. The result within postcolonial African states has been that a number of tribes-some

with long precolonial histories of confict-have been grouped together into confined areas.

zone is Rwanda, where in 1994 ethnic Hutus and

and mountainous country. Tutsis had migrated to

the region some 400 years earlier, but upon independence from Belgium in 1962,

Hutus went about ethnic cleansing, forcing many Tirtsi refugees into the former

Zaire and, to Uganda. In 1994, after a plane carrying the presidents of Rwanda and

neighboring Burundi was shot down, large-scale reactionary violence erupted by

Hutus against local Tutsis, who were blamed for the crash. In resPonse, Tutsi refu-

gees fooded back into the country to fight back. In the end, each ethnic group lost

around 500,000 people to the violent genocide.

In the years following, Hutu versus Tutsi violence has spilled over to Burundi and eastern parts of

the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where ethnic-based violence and fighting continue today.

The Easrern Congo is seen by many researchers to be the next area of widespread armed confict

in Africa. Due to ethnic fighting in and along the Democratic Republic of the Congo and inva-

sion by the armies of Uganda andZambia, the region's 1884 borders are all but meaningless lines

on rhe map. Other postcolonial frontier border disputes are highlighted in the following table.

Kashmir India, Pakistan, China

Mountainous region and British Partition

in 1948 (Remains in confic$

E-pty Quarter

Saudi Arabia, United

Arab Emirates, Oman

Open sand dune desert (Rub al-Khali)

(Saudis and Yemen settled in 2000)

Neutrd Tnnes

Saudi fuabia, Iraq,

Kuwait

Uqair Protocol of 1922 and open desert

(Saudis and Kuwait settled in 1970) (Sau-

dis and Iraq settled in 1991)

Tyranny of the Map Example: Bwanda

An example of one such postcolonial confict

Tirtsis fought to control the small landlocked

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Compact Shape without irregularity Nigeria, Colorado

Fragmented Broken into pieces; archipelagos Philippines, Newfoundland

Elongated Appears stretched-out, long Chile, Tennessee

Prorupt Has a panhandle or peninsula Italy, Michigan

Perforated Has a hole(s) (country large lake) South Africa, Urah

Landlocked Has no sea or ocean borders Switzerland, 'Wyoming

Territorial Morphology

The shape of a country is often what helps you identifr it on a map. To some degree, the shape

of a country also impacts its society and external relations with other counrries. Here is a list of

the major types of state morphology (shape):

Territorial Change

In addition to wars and other subsequent border changes, there are a few other ways in which

state territory can change shape. Decolonization after \forld'War II significantly reduced the

area and number of territorial and colonial holdings of the European powers and the United

States. Although most areas were granted independence, some colonial holdings were incorpo-

rated and residents integrated with full citizen starus. Examples include Hawaii, Alaska, and

the French departrnents of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Rdunion, and French Guyana. Residents

ofthese places have full voting rights, pay taxes, and receive benefits just like the other citizens

of the United States and France.

Annexation is another term used to describe the addition of territory as a result of a land pur-

chase or when a territorial claim is extended through incorporation. The United States origi-

nally purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 for $2000,000 in gold-a bargain

of Manhattan-esque proportion-and it became a full stare in 1948. The U.S. Virgin Islands

resulted from a cash sale of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix by a financially strapped Danish

government in l9l7 (during'World'War I).

The Swiss N.ry?

Although Switzerland can register and fag merchant ships, due to its landlocked mor-

phology, it has never had a navy. Humorously, the term "Swiss Navy" is either an oxymo-

ron or pure absurdity. The latter appears to be the historical case. In the early 1990s, pilots

from the Swiss Air Force were the first outside of the U.S. Navy and Marines to f,y the

F-18 Hornet aircraft. The United States gave permission for the Swiss Air Force to use all

existing American F-18 training programs and facilities. For some this went as far as the

ultimate in military fight training, carrier landing school. Upon completion of carrier

training, some pilots were awarded certificates that had "Swiss Navy" printed on them.

6. Political Patterns and Processes 259

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Gapitals

'We cant forget that each state has to have a capital city. \fhy? There will always need to be a

seat of government where political power is centered. In a way, political power is a form of

currency just like money. And just as market areas need financial centers of exchange, politi-

cians need a place to have organized exchanges of power. Occasionally they make laws and

have elections, as well. Federal states can have several scales ofcapitals, just as they have several

scales of sub-state units.

Most countries have one national capital, but some have more than one. Often this is done to

share power across different regions of the country. Here are a few examples of countries with

more than one capital:

Occasionally countries change the location of their capital. Sometimes this is due to a shift in

political power, or it can be due to congestion in the old capital. Some new capitals are often

planned capital cities, which are located in places where cities did not previously exist:

A.[ron, county seat of Summit County, Ohio Local, County, or Parish

Columbus, state capital of Ohio State, Provincial, or Regional Scale

National (nation-state), Federal 'Washington, D.C., capital of the United States

South Africa Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Cape Town

Bolivia La Paz, Sucre

Netherlands Amsterdam, The Hague

Ivory Coast Abidjan, Yamoussoukro

New York City United States 'W'ashington, D.C.

Rio de Brazil Brasilia Janeiro

Canberra Sydney Australia

Abuja Lagos Nigeria

Berlin Bonn, East Berlin Germany Reunification

New Delhi Kolkata (Calcutta) India Center of colony

Ankara Istanbul Tirrkey Congestion, cenffaliry

Moscow St. Petersburg Russia Russian Revolution

Jerusalem* Tel Aviv Israel Israeli annexation of\7est Bank

Other capitals were moved to existing cities for political reasons.

*Many countries do not officially recognize this and locate their embassies in Tel Aviv instead.

Electoral Politics and lnternal Boundaries

Who Can Vote?

Suffrage in terms of age, race, and gender has varied historically from state ro srate.

The Nineteenth Amendmenr to the U.S. Consrirurion granred American women

the right to vote in 1920. 'women in other parts of the world gained the right to

vote in these selected examples:

In addition to gender, race has historically been a barrier to voting rights. Apartheid in white,

minority-ruled South Africa, which racially segregated almost all aspects of life and residential

geography, also denied the voting rights of non-white citizens. In 1994, the first full and free

elections in South Africa resulted in the presidency of former political prisoner and civil rights

activist Nelson Mandela, who was from the African Xhosa tribe (pronounced Ho-sah). This

was the world's last case of official government restriction, or de jure (by lr*) restriction on

voting due to race. However, in many countries there is still de facto (a matter of fact) racial

and ethnic discrimination that restricts voting by minority citizens, via fear and intimidation

tactics.

AP Human Geography Prep

CED 4,6

lnternal Boundaries

Fun Fact

Did you know that

the Twenty-Sixth

Amendment lowered the

voting age in the United

States from 21 to 18 in

1971?

New Zealand 1893

Canada 19L7

United Kingdom l9l8 (but only after age 30 until 1928)

United States t920

Mexico 1947

Honduras 1955

Paraguay t96t

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Voting for Local and Regional Representation

All democracies have some form of parliamentary system in which at least one lawmaking

body or house has popular representation. Each country has its own system regarding the

number of seats and the size of voting districts. In the United States, division of the 435 seats

of rhe House of Representatives is apportioned relative to each statet population. Every state is

divided into a number of congressional districts, each district having one seat in the Congress;

California has the mosr, ar 53, and the least-populated state,'Wyoming, has 1. In the United

Kingdom and Canada, members of parliament (MPs) are selected from local constituencies

based upon population, but unlike in the United States, these are averaged from across the

counrry. Due to its relatively dense population, Ontario holds 106 of the House of Commons'

308 MPs. Senators in Canada are appointed.

The Electoral Gollege

In the United Stares, presidential elections are decided through voting by the Electoral

College. After the November presidential election, electoral votes are assigned state by state

in Deiember, based on the popular vote in each state. Most states are "winner takes all," but

a few, like Maine and Nebraska, split electoral votes in proportion to the popular vote' The

number of electoral votes is based on the total number of representative seats, plus the two

senarors' seats from each state-the District of Columbia also has 3 electoral votes. It follows

that California has the most electoral votes, with 55, and'Wyoming the least, at 3. It takes at

least 270 (> 50 percent) electoral votes to win the presidential election. If the candidates tie or

have fewer than 270 due to a rhird party, then Congress chooses the new president.

Every ten years following the census, the United States reapportions the 435 seats of the

House of Representatives. In many states, this generally causes some changes to the number of

congressional seats and, as a result, the number of electoral votes a state has. If the number goes

up or do*n (and sometimes even when the number doesn't change), state governments draw

new congressional district borderlines to reapportion districts into equal-sized populations.

Map of the North Carolina 12th Congressional District

Greensboro

Vinston-Salem

Charlotte

Di$ria width only as wide

as Intercatc 85

Gerrymandering

Sometimes reapportionment mapping is done in a straightforward manner with

regional or compact districts. other times the shapes of new or redrawn dis-

tricts are very irregular. The irregularly shaped districts that are highly elongated

and prorupt are often referred to as gerrymandering, named for Massachusetts

Governor Elbridge Gerry who first attempted irregularly shaped districts in 1812.

In 1990 and 2000, a number of gerrymanders were attempted that tried ro stack

votes guaranteeing congressional support for one particular party within each

district, making the outcomes of elections predictable and in the favor of the political majority

in state government. Others were attempted that created "minority-m ajority districts," where

lines were drawn ro encompass only minority population centers.

In the 1992 case of North Carolina, Republican state leaders drew the new l2th district along

Interstate Highway 85, connecting a number of African American communities along a nar-

row corridor over 200 miles long. The reapportionment was challenged in court and, in 1993,

the U.S. Supreme Court found the redistricting unconstitutional, resulting in a redrawn dis-

trict for the 1998 election cycle.

Redrawn Map Approved by the Supreme Court in 1997

POIITICAI EGONOMY

In terms of current and historical context, it is important to keep in mind the concept of politi-

cal economy when you are discussing a country (especially on the FRQs). 'Why political econ-

omy? For one, it's often difficult to discuss the political situation in a state without explaining

the economic aspects. In addition, these political-economic sysrems have important links to

other parts of the AP Human Geography material. Here are the major categories to consider,

with examples:

AP Human Geography Prep

Greensboro

Winston-Salem

Charlotte

Did You Know?

A prorupted state is

a compacted state

with a large projecting

extension, like Florida.

6. Political Patterns and Processes | 263

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Feudalism and lts Decline

Feudal political economies operated with the vast majority of land and wealth being con-

trolled by an aristocrtq-apeerage of lords, earls, marquis, barons, dukes, princes, kings,

and queens. Conversely, the vast majority of the population, as peasants' commoners' serfs, or

slaves, were poor farmers and laborers who worked the land controlled by aristocrats. Peasants

paid rent and had their harvests taxed for the right to live on and work the land. This system

t p. p.rt"rr,s in a cycle of debt, known as debt peonage, as they were never able to fully pay

offrents and taxes.

Feudal states tended to have absolute monarchy, in which the supreme aristocrat, a king,

prince, or duke, was both head of state and head of government, and therefore did not share

power with anyone. Like medieval-style feudalism, the concept of absolute monarchy has

diminished over time and mostly exists in the Islamic world. Only a few absolute monarchies

exist today: Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Morocco (limited power-sharing), and emirates within the

United Arab Emirates.

The Decline of Feudalism and Empires

Revolutions and wars from the late 1700s to the 1900s forced many feudal states to accePt

some form of democracy. Events such as the French Revolution of 1789 inspired many mon-

archs to accepr power-sharing with commoners to avoid losing control of their states. Under

constitutional monarchy, the supreme aristocrat remains head of state, but the leader of the

elected parliament is the head of government, with integrated legislative and executive Powers.

In most cases, this is a prime minister or premier, who appoints senior members of parliament

to be ministers or secretaries of executive-branch departments.

In most constitutional monarchies, rhe monarch retains the power to dismiss parliament;

appoints judges, ambassadors, and other officials; is commander and chief of the military; and

rerains significant land holdings and estates. However, the monarcht political Power is mostly

diminished to a symbolic role, and he or she holds a small but important position in dictating

policy and proposing laws.

Here are some examples of constitutional monarchies:

. Great Britain

. Belgium

. The Netherlands

. Japan

o NorwaI

. Denmark

. Sweden

. Spain

. Thailand

. Luxembourg

. Kuwait

. Jordan

. Bahrain

. Monaco

. Cambodia

Example: The British Aristocracy and Government

The current form of consdtutional monarchy in Great Brirain has been in place since the

Magna Carta was signed in 1215. Feudalism has reigned throughout but, in the Magna Carta,

there was some degree of power-sharing with the aristocracy and later with commonirs voting

in elections (1689).

Today, feudal rents to local aristocrats are still technically paid in a number of rural areas of

the United Kingdom, although many are symbolic and small fees. A majority of Britons live

in urban areas and are not subject to these fees. Many rural farms are now owned privately,

though some may still be required ro pay feudal renrs.

The British aristocracy's structure and role has also been modified in recenr years. Traditionally,

aristocratic peers sat in the House of Lords, rhe upper house of parliament, which also serves

as the supreme court. The House of Lords numbers more than 760 members. \7hen the king

or queen elevated someone to the peerage, a new seat was added. Eventually, they had too

many members. Beginningin 1999, Queen Elizabeth II reformed the house with two types of

members. Hereditary peers, who at death pass their dtle and sear to their firstbor., ,or, *.r.

reduced in number and life peers, mainly senior public servants who were rewarded with a title,

kept their title and seat for their lifetime only.

Since the late 1600s, the power of the House of Commons, the lower house of parliament, has

steadily increased. The Commons has 650 seats apportioned to local districts across the United

Kingdom; Scotland, W'ales, and Nonhern Ireland also have regional padiaments of their own.

The Prime Minister (PM) is head of government, but is also a member of parliament (MP).

Generally the PM is the political leader of the party with the most MPs. Other senior MPs

from this ruling Party serve as ministers of the executive branch of government. This is another

example of how parliamentary democracy integrates the three branches of government.

Commonwealth Countries

Most, but not all, member states of the Commonwealth of Nations (independent former parrs

of the British Empire) retain the British monarch as their head of state. These commonwialth

countries have their own parliaments and prime ministers as head of government. Each also has

a toyally appointed governor-general as the crown representative in the country. The governor-

generalt role, like the monarcht, is mostly a symbolic and ceremonial position. These countries

are nonetheless considered independent sovereign states. Yer they do retain some minor political

link to the United Kingdom-most provide military support to the United Kingdom in times

of war. The following countries claim the British monarch as head of state:

. Canada

. Jamaica

. Dominica

. St. Vincent and the Grenadines

r New Zealand

. Australia

. Fiii

. Papua New Guinea

. Belize

. Guyana

. Bahamas

. Antigua and Barbuda

. Grenada

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India, Pakisran, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, and Kenya are a few of the commonwealth members

that do not claim the British monarch as head of smte. However, all commonwealth nations

have parliamentary governments, which integrate executive, legislative, and judicial powers,

Iike that of Great Britain. In addirion, the Commonwealth of Nations is an important

supranetional organization that provides special trade, education services, government

funding, and preferred immigration status between member governments and citizens.

Some former colonies are now dependent territories (not sovereign states) of the United Kingdom.

They are nor Commonwealrh members but are still controlled from London with limited local

governance. These colonies include Anguilla, Cayman Islands, Tlrrks and Caicos, British Virgin

lslands, Bermuda, Montserrat, the Falkland Islands, St. Helena, and Ascension Island.

Political Economy: Free-Market Democracy

Generally, countries with elected-representative parliamentary systems such as the United

Stares, the United Kingdom, commonwealth countries, and other constitutional monarchies

or republics are classified as free-market democracies. Internal to a state, this system Bener-

ally relies upon balancing the relationship between the elected-representative government, its

citizens, and business interests. In most cases, there is a variable system ofregulation and taxa-

tion by the stare. As a result, the marketplace is not totally free, as it would be in a completely

unregulated laissez-faire economic system, but it's close enough.

Government regularory influence of the private lives of its citizens and practices of businesses

is usually limited to areas concerning public safety and economic protections. The point of

democracy is that people have a say in who makes the rules and thus have some infuence over

the rule-making process.

What's a Bepublic?

'Without going too deeply inro your AP Government material, keep in mind that France,

Germany, Italy, and many former colonial states are technically republics, under the broader

caregory of free-market democracy. Some republics, like France, are centrally governed from

a single capital. Others, like Germany or the United States, are confederations that aPPor-

tion some government power of legislation and administration to their comPonent states or

provinces (Lander in Germany). The main thing to keep in mind is that republics are free of

aristocracy or monarchal control. The governments are fully under the control of the "common"

people, as opposed to hereditary monarchy. By this definition, neither Canada nor Australia

are iepublics, since both still recognize the Queen of England as the unelected, hereditary head

of their states. On the other hand, another former British colony, Barbados, became the world's

newesr republic in November 2021when it officially removed Queen Elizabeth as its official

head ofstate and elected its first president, despite having been independent since 1966'

Unlike parliamentary systems that assign legislative, executive, and judicial Power to the same

people, republics generally have a separation of powers. Here, the executive' legislative, and

judicial branches ofgovernment are held by separate groups ofpeople that keep each other in

check. This may seem less efficient, but it reduces the potential for corruPtion of the whole

government. If one branch's leadership fails or its practices are called into question, the other

branches can act to correct problems or replace leadership ifnecessary.

Problems Within Republics

This is not to say that republics are perfect systems, as you might feel if you read too much

Plato. The written constitutions of these governments need to be fexible enough to allow

governments to deal with political and other crises when they occur. The United States has

had two constitutions, the former being the Articles of Confederation, which did not work

out. The French have had five different types of government since the revolution, and the cur-

rent government system in France is known as the "Fifth Republic." There is no perfect con-

stitution, but a constitution can be refined over time by the addition of amendments. Another

problem is that wealthy businesspeople and corporations have replaced the aristocracy in rerms

of the control of money,land, and resources. Their personal and corporare political infuence

overshadows that of many thousands of private citizens. The purchase of political favoritism to

infuence the setting of regulations is a constant problem in republics, as it is in other democra-

cies, especially within the legislative branch. This has created uneven power relations in free-

market democracies.

Another type of separation that is sometimes employed to blunt the power of the executive

branch is to have separate presidents and prime ministers (or chancellors in Germany). In

the United States, Mexico, and Argendna, the president is both head of state and head of

government. In most other republics, there is executive separation. Depending on the counrry,

this can be done in a couple of ways. In France, the president is head of government and the

prime minister is head of state, but itt the opposite in Italy. Ay! There are roo many variables to

keep straight, bur make sure to know a couple of examples.

Political Economy: Marxist-socialism

Under Communism, Karl Marx's political-economic theories attempted to right the wrongs

of feudalism and inequalities of capitalism in free-market democracies. One of the main goals

of Marxism was to create a class-free society where there were no inequalities in terms of

wealth or Power. To do this, the state would own all land and industry, the government would

direct economic productivity, and everyone would earn the same amount of money regardless

of labor position.

The key to this working was the planned economy, which did not rely on supply and demand

like capitalism. The central government would calculate the economic needs of the state, its

industries, and people. Then the government would ser quotas for each individual operational

unit of agricultural or manufacturing production to meet these needs. Theoretically, the pro-

ductivity of the economy would result in a collective wealth that would be shared equally across

the population. ICs a utopian ideal that the system should create a harmonious peaceful social

existence, but Communism in practice failed to reproduce Marx's utopia.

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What Happened with Communism?

You may have heard rhe statement, "A good idea in theory but not in practice." This is true

for Communism. Marx died in 1883 and the first Communist country the Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union), was establishe d in l9l7 with the fall of the czar's

absolute monarchy in Russia. This time gap is significant. Had Marx seen how his ideas were

put into practice, he'd have "blown a fuse," "had a cow," "had kittens"-pick your own anal-

ogy. On a free-response question, you could describe him as upset or disapproving.

There were a number of unintended consequences to the Russian revolution, including a Pro-

tracted and bloody civil war, human rights violations, murders on the part of the Communist

government, and forced resettlement of over a million citizens. Despite all this, Soviet

Communism emerged functioning under Marxt basic principles. Under Stalin, the USSR

developed Five-Year Plans, which were comprehensive long-term economic plans that dictated

all production in minute detail. In the 1930s, when the rest of the world was suffering through

the poverty of rhe Great Depression, the Soviets were doing comparatively well.

However, 50 years later the USSR was falling apart. The devolution of the Soviet system

was due in part ro several political-economic problems in the USSR. One thing that would

have caught Marxt eye was that, in reality, three classes of Soviet citizens emerged early in

the Soviet Union. Most were workers, as Marx had envisioned his proletariat. However, to

achieve an important posirion in Soviet society, such as that of a government official, professor,

or factory manager, you had to join the Communist Party. Party members made up about 6

percenr of the USSR population and enjoyed many perks such as special stores, nicer homes,

and personal cars. Likewise, a military officer class emerged that had a similarly high quality

of life in comparison to the regular working class.

'Working-class people were resentful. But what could they do? Heavy-handed secret police and

laws that made public protest punishable by hard labor in prison camps (known es guhgs) kept

open criricism ro a minimum. Creative, inventive, and industrious people stagnated. Another

reason for this was that there was a lack of incentive in the system that would motivate people to

have better lives. It didnt matter if you were a brain surgeon or a garbage man; you got the same

monthly pay. Sure, there are some perks to being a doctor, but were these enough to struggle

through examinations and years of training with no financial reward? This was a problem.

The lack of incentive also affected economic productivity. Neither farms nor factories had any

reason to produce more food or products than what was stipulated in government quotas. This

resulted in a lack of surplus, leaving many stores with few items on the shelves and lines of

people waiting to receive rations for food and clothing. More details about the effects of the

Cold'War on the devolution of the USSR are ahead in this chapter'

These problems have also plagued other communist countries, and now only two cases of Soviet-

style Communism remain: Cuba and North Korea. Despite the historic restoration of diplomatic

relations between Cuba and the United States in 2014, Cuban president Raul Castro continues to

declare Cuba a communisr state. To see what has happened with economic reforms in Communist

China and Vietnam, see Chapter 9.

What About the Socialism Part?

The positive things that came out of Communism were mainly in the realm of infrastructure

and social welfare. Health care is a good example. Prior to Communism in the Soviet Union,

China, and Cuba, there had been almost no health care available to the common people.

Socialism meant that everyone had a right to health care, and hospitals, clinics, and rural

traveling doctor programs were established early on. Similarly infrastructure programs for

public schools, free universities, drinking water, care for the elderly, and public transir were

established to improve the efficiency and quality of life in communist sociery. It may not look

glamorous today, but it successfully replaced the utter poverry that existed under the former

feudal and corrupt capitalist societies in these counrries.

These socialist successes impacted the non-communist world as well during the latrer 20th cen-

tury. Government leadership and control of health care, education, and pensions are Marxist-

socialist ideals which have since been incorporared in W'estern free-market democracies like

Canada and Great Britain.

GEOPOLlTICS

The term geopolitics refers to the global-scale relationships between sovereign srates. Here are

a number of other important geopolitical issues that you need to be prepared for on the exam.

Centrifugal and Gentripetal Forces

These are two terms that students mix up all the time. Here are the definitions and

a way to remember which one is which:

Centripetal forces are factors that hold togerher the social and political

fabric of the state. Think pedak make a bike go.

Centrifugal forces are factors that tear apart the social and political fabric

of the state. Think a centrifuge separates blood into its diferent ?arts.

In every country there are a number of forces at work that both reinforce and

destabilize the state. \7'hen the balance shifts too far in the category of centrifu-

gal forces, the survival of the state is at risk and indicates the likelihood of armed

confict-in the form of an internal civil war, or the possibility of confict spilling

over into external cross-border war. Centripetal forces come with their own set of

consequences-while we're quick to think of the positive outcomes such as a sense

of unity and a well-run economy, an overabundance of centripetal force may lead to

nationalistic movements and xenophobia.

a

a

AP Human Geography Prep

cED 4.10

Consequences of

Centrifugal and

Centripetal Forces

Centripetal and

centrifugal forces are a

favorite topic for both

multiple-choice and

f ree-response questions.

Make sure you know the

difference!

. Political beliefs of nationalism

o A strong and well-liked national leader

. An effective and productive economy

. Effective governmenr social welfare

Programs

. Ethnic, racial, or religious differences

or conficts

. Political corruption

. Failing economic conditions

. Natural disasters or a wartime defeat

6. Political Patterns and Processes | 269

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Example: Yugoslavia

As we mentioned in the Cultural Conficts section of Chapter 5, Yugoslavia was an artificial

state created after 'World'War I that had several different ethnic and religious groups living

within its borders. The post-World 'War II communist leader of the country was the Croatian

Josip Tito. As a Croat who fought alongside Serbians against the Nazis, Tito was a good choice

as president. He became a centripetal force representing the two largesr ethnic grouPs in the

country. A strong nationalist belief in Communism among Yugoslavians helped Tito build an

economically strong and socially harmonious multiethnic society. These were additional cen-

tripetal forces that held the state together.

\fhen Tiro died in 1980, the lack of an effective multiethnic leader to replace him created a

political power vecuum that opened the way for different nationalist leaders representing diE

ferent ethnicities to atrempt to seize power for themselves and their constituents. These dispa-

rate groups not only differed in ethnicity and religion, but also shared a history of conficts and

warfare.

These differences became powerful centrifugal forces that ripped apart the Yugoslav social and

political fabric and, in combination with the fall of Communism in Europe, doomed the coun-

iry to ethnic violence and dissolution. In aw^y,you can think of Titot death as a centrifugal

force in itself.

Balkanization and Irredentism

The case of the former Yugoslavia is also an important example of balkanization.

This is due to the fact that Yugoslavia sits in the Balkan Peninsula, which has

historically been divided among a large number of ethnic and religious groups. The

rcrm balkanization refers to a situation in which the political landscape goes from a

larger state to several smaller states. In the last 100 years of European history the

continent has geopolitically gone from being dominated by large empire states to

being dominated by several small nation-states. In 1909, there were 27 sovereign

states in Europe; today, there are 50.

After 'World 'War I, many of the early cases of balkanization were due to a realign-

ment of German borders and rhe dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into

six sovereign states. After Vorld'War II, some borders changed but the number of

states changed only slightly. It was after the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe

and in the Soviet Union in l99l that the political landscape began to break apart.

The Cold War's a Hot

Exam Topic

The theme of political-

economic conflict

between democracies

and communist countries

during the Cold War

(1945-19S1)is a common

topic of geopolitical

questions on the AP

Human Geography Exam.

This will be covered in

more detail in the Know

the lUodels section at

the end of this chapter.

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Old State (end date) New States

Yugoslavia ( I 99 l-200S) Slovenia

Croatia

Serbia

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Montenegro

Macedonia

Kosovo

(disputed)

Czechoslovaki a, (l 993) Czech Republic Slovakia

Austro-Hungarian Empire

(1918)

Poland (part)

Czechoslovakia

Hungary

Austria

Yugoslavia (par$

Liechtenstein

ussR (1991) Russia

Belarus

Ulaaine

Estonia

Lawia

Lithuania

Moldova

Armenia

Azsrbaijan

Kazakhsmn

Uzbekistan

Thjikistan

Kyrgy-zstan

Tirrkmenistan

lrredentism as the Cause of Balkanization

Irredentism tends to follow one of two definitions: when a minority ethnic group desires to

break away from a multiethnic state and form its own nation-state, or break away and align

itself with a culturally similar state. Almost all of the cases of balkanization discussed in the

previous section fall into these two categories. Cases of irredentism continue, and Russia is

one of the most significant situations where a number of groups are seeking independence or

annexation by a neighboring sovereign srate that is culturally similar.

Chechnya is one such place. Chechens, like more than 25 other autonomous republics

in Russia, were granted limited local selFgovernance by the Russian Federation. However,

Chechens are ethnically Turkic peoples who are predominantly Muslim-very different from

Slavic, Eastern Orthodox Christian Russians. It stands ro reason that both religion and ethnic-

ity are the centrifugal forces in this case.

Soon after the fall of Communism, Chechens began to declare independence from Russia. As

a result, the Russian government moved in troops and a regional armed confict has ensued.

Russia fears the loss of oil resources and pipelines in the region, but a larger geopolitical issue

looms. If Russia were to allow Chechnya to become independent or be annexed by Azerbaijan,

then many of the other autonomous republics would push for secession, leaving the Russian

Federation without much of its current land and resources.

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Location Island of Timor Ossetia

East Timorese (Catholic) South Ossetia (Muslims) Irredentists

Rep. of Georgia (Christian) Resistant State Indonesian (Muslim)

Russian military as of 2008

protects the Ossetian

autonomous region

in Georgia

Independence in 2OO2

after UN intervention

with Australian peace-

keeping uoops

Status

Reunification

In a few irredentism cases, nations or culture groups were torn aPart into seParate states as

a result of war or other historical events. In the post-Cold 'S7'ar

era, there have been a few

cases of reunification of note: (East and 'West) Germany, Yemen (North Yemen and Yemen

Democratic Republic), and the return of the Canal Zone to Panama. Some places, such as

China/Taiwan and North/South Korea, occasionally talk of reunification, despite the potential

for armed confict.

Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick

Neocolonialism, meanwhile, describes a contemporary form of colonialism-one based not

on political conrrol, but on ecunomic ?ressure, ExhibitA: The United States of America. \flhile

it possesses very few political territories, it has long waged economic control over nearly every

nation in the 'W'estern Hemisphere, often by granting favored-nation trade status to those

neighbors who play by its rules. This type of power is often used by developed countries to

control developing countries and their precious resources.

The best current example is China. That rising superpower has been busy building neocolonial

control over many African narions. It does so via Chinese state-controlled corporations that

dole out valuable construction contracts-new ports, new roads, etc.-to those African leaders

willing enough (or desperate enough) to do Chinas bidding'

Siberian Taiga

Heartland

Forest

1,1

,

Steppe

KNOW THE MODELS

HEARTTAND-RIMLAND MODET

The Agricultural and Resource Heardand Is Surrounded by Rimland

The main geoPolitical model in the AP Human Geography course encompasses both world

wars and the Cold W'ar. In 1904, British geographer Halford Mackinder proposed what would

become known as the Heartland-Rimlandmodel. Mackinder's model was an efforr ro define

the global geopolitical landscape and determine areas of potential future conflict. He identified

agricultural land as the primary commodity that states were interesred in. Several states with

limited land area wanted to expand their territory-as they had done by expanding their colo-

nial empires. However, they also eyed one anorher's European farming areas.

The largest of these was the Eastern European steppe, a very productive area of grain culti-

vation mostly controlled by the Russian Empire at the time. This, combined with the min-

eral and timber-rich region across the Urals into Siberia, was identified by Mackinder as the

Heartland. It was this portion of the Earth's surface that states bordering Rimland, such as

the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Romania, might potentially invade.

The Rimland also contained other landwolves eager to grab at neighboring territory, such as

France and Italy. Likewise, there were seawolves, such as Great Britain and Japan, who would

use their navies ro leverage geopolitical power.

Predictive Power of the Model

In effect, Mackinder accurately predicted the battle lines of the Eastern Front during 'W'orld

'War I. In 1921, he revised the model, expanding the Heartland further into Central Europe. In

essence, Mackinder stated that the same geopolitical situation remained, with land still being

the primary commodity of confict: the thing that countries were willing to fight over.

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From 1904 onward, Mackinder points out that the areas of future confict are the borderlines

between the Heartland and Rimland. This prediction comes true again with the 1931 inva-

sion of Manchuria by the Japanese, which some Asian scholars identifr as the acrual start of

'W'orld'War II. The European border confict areas in the model are also realized with the 1939

German invasion of Poland, a country within the redrawn Heartland.

Shatterbelt Theory

ImcrCsccnt

a

a

Outer Crcscent

I coH wa-En shaacrbels

Conficrc Are Likeh to Occur in the rnnsl Q1es6sn1

The Cold War: Shatterbelts and Containment Theory

Mackinder died in lgfi,buthis legacy lived on in Cold'War-era geopolitical models and theory.

In 1950, American geographer Saul Cohen proposed the Shatterbelt theory. He modified

Mackinder's Heartland into the Pivot Area and Rimland into the Inner Crescent. The rest of

the world became the Outer Crescent, including the United States. His land-based concept was

that Cold'War conflicts would likely occur within the Inner Crescent. He pointed out several

Inner Crescenr areas of geopolitical weakness that he called Shatrcrbelts. Like Mackinder's earlier

predictions, Cohenb Shatterbelts accurately identified numerous areas where wars emerged

between 1950 and the end of the Cold \Var in 1991.

Gontainment Theory

Some of these confict areas were ones that the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of

China would attempr to capmre to create bufier states, lands that would Protect them by

creating a surrounding buffer of sympathetic countries. Infuenced by Mackinder and Nicholas

Spykmant theoretical work, U.S. diplomat George Kennan first proposed the strategic policy of

containment to the Arnerican government in l947.In this proposal, the United States and its

allies would atrempt to build a containment wall around the core communist states. Anytime the

USSR or China attempted to expand the realm of infuence politically or militarily, the forces of

NATO and other democratic state allies should be deployed to stop them.

This was a successful strategy at first, and communist movements were thwarted in Greece, Iran,

and Malaysia. At the same time, W'est Germany, Italy, and Japan were rebuilt as industrialized

free-market democracies as part of the containment wall, under the Marshall and MacArthur

Plans. However, communists reached a military stalemate in Korea in 1953, and won military

victories against the French (1958) and Americans (1975) in Vietnam. These combined with

quick communist takeovers of Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1969), as well as Angola (1975),

Cuba (1959), and Nicaragua (1979) were evidence of containmenr theoryt limitations put into

practice, as communism spread even to parts of the Outer Crescent.

The United States and allied states had to contain these Soviet-supported satellite states to

prevent Communism from spreading further. They feared a domino efiect, where one stare

would fall to Communism and then inspire and support communist uprisings in neighboring

states.

Gontainment's long-Term Success

Despite the failings of the containmenr approach, Communism was limited to

a large degree to the Pivot Area and a number of buffer states. The containment

effort had a devastating effect on rhe economy of the Soviet Union and its

allies. At certain points during the Cold 'War, it is estimated that upwards of 50

Percent of the USSRT gross national product was focused on military production and

other activities to support the expansion of Communism. This stressed the Soviet

economy to the breaking point and created further shortages of food and consumer

goods for its citizens, which in turn created further problems within Soviet society

and the communist Bovernment.

By the 1980s cracks began to appear in the social fabric of the USSR. Numerous

dissidents publicly criticized the governmentt expansion efforts and costly nuclear

arms arsenal. Similarly, the mothers of the Red Army soldiers killed in the War in

Afghanistan (1979-1989) publicly protested in the streets of Moscow, despite the

potential of arrest and deportation to Siberia. They learned that not even the most coldhearted

communist leaders could jail the mother of a soldier killed in action. Continuing the contain-

ment tradition, monies spent by the United States in the 1980s to arm Afghan Mujahideen

rebels with arms, including Stinger shoulderJaunched anti-aircraft missiles, paid offin the end

with Soviet ffoops returning in defeat. This was a centrifugal force that reverberated through-

out the USSR, and its government fell rwo years later in 1991.

Terrorism

\7hich is harder to do, define "terrorism" or prevent it? Both are proving to be very challenging.

The use ef 1s1ss1l5rn-planned violent attacks on people and places to provoke fear and cause

a change in government policy-is as old as dme. State terrorism occurs when governments

use violence and intimidation to control their own people. Roman armies attacked Carthage in

146 s.c.n. and totally destroyed the ciry and its inhabitants. They even threw salt on the fields

so no food could be grown. Nazi Germany, the Stalinist Soviet Union, and Pol Pot's regime in

Cambodia are all sad examples of state terrorism during the 20th cenrury.