1. Explain the following terms:

   1. Terror management theory

The terror management theory (TMT) states that people feel threatened by their own death and therefore adopt worldviews that allow them to find meaning and worth in their lives. Terror management theory deals with consciousness and accessibility regarding thoughts of death.

2. Meta-analysis

Meta-analysis is the combination of estimates across studies for the purposes of drawing general conclusions. Meta-analysis usually summarizes the results of each study by an index of effect size and estimates of effect sizes are combined across studies.

3. Positive incentive value

Positive-incentive value is the anticipated pleasure involved in the performance of a particular behavior, such as eating a particular food or drinking a particular beverage. It is a key element of the positive-incentive theories of hunger.

4. Analytic introspection

Analytic introspection is the process whereby people are trained to describe their inner feelings, thoughts, sensations and experiences in response to some kind of external stimuli.

5. Individual differences

Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and thus help to define each person's individuality. Among the most important kinds of individual differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values.

2. You want to determine if cognitive training causes an improvement in attention. Describe the study you would use, being sure to highlight:

   1. Use of between- and within-subject factors

   2. Independent variable(s)

   3. Dependent variable(s)

   4. The sample 

To investigate the effect of cognitive training on attention, I'd design a mixed-design study incorporating both between-subject and within-subject factors.

Design:

1. Between-Subject Factor: Participants would be randomly assigned to one of two groups: the experimental group receiving cognitive training and the control group receiving no training.

2. Within-Subject Factor: Attention would be measured at multiple time points: before the training (baseline), immediately after the training, and at follow-up intervals (e.g., 1 month, 3 months, 6 months post-training).

Independent Variable(s):

The independent variable would be the cognitive training intervention. The experimental group would undergo a structured cognitive training program designed to improve attention, while the control group would not receive any specific training.

Dependent Variable(s):

The dependent variable would be attention performance, which could be assessed through various measures such as:

- Reaction time tasks

- Attentional blink paradigms

- Continuous performance tasks (e.g., sustained attention to response tasks)

- Neuropsychological assessments targeting attentional functions

Sample:

The sample would ideally consist of a diverse group of participants across age ranges, with both genders represented. They should be screened to ensure they do not have any pre-existing cognitive impairments or neurological conditions. Additionally, the sample size should be large enough to detect meaningful differences between the experimental and control groups.

Procedure:

1. Pre-Training Assessment: Participants from both groups would undergo baseline assessments to establish their initial attentional performance.

2. Cognitive Training Intervention: The experimental group would then undergo the cognitive training program, which could involve various exercises targeting attention, such as attentional control tasks, working memory exercises, and inhibition training. The control group would not receive any specific training during this period.

3. Post-Training Assessment: Immediately after the training period, both groups would undergo attention assessments again to measure any immediate effects of the training intervention.

4. Follow-Up Assessments: Follow-up assessments would be conducted at predetermined intervals to evaluate the longevity of any observed improvements in attention.

5. Data Analysis: Statistical analysis would be conducted to compare attention performance between the experimental and control groups at each assessment time point. Additionally, longitudinal analysis techniques could be employed to examine the trajectory of attentional improvements over time within each group.

By employing both between-subject and within-subject factors, this study design allows for a comprehensive evaluation of the effects of cognitive training on attention while controlling for individual differences and potential confounding variables.

3. Discuss the characteristics of dreams, including their potential significance, with reference to theories discussed in class. (5 marks) 

• Narrative with ‘experiential resemblance to waking life’ • Typically aversive (>64%), rarely happy (<18%) or sexual (<10%) • Increase in complexity w/age (neurocognitive theory) • REM dreams (~80%) tend to be emotional, illogical and have sudden plot shifts • NREM dreams (~20%) are more thought-like, repetitive and centered around daily tasks

• Dream Protection Theory 

Sexual + aggressive instincts are transformed into symbols that represent wish fulfillment; interpretation required 

• Evolutionary Theory 

Dreams about threats to reproductive success, plan solutions 

• Activation-Synthesis Theory 

 Dreams are an attempt by the brain to interpret random activity

4. Describe all forms of descriptive research, highlighting strengths and weaknesses of each. (5 marks)

1 – Descriptive Research 

• General assessment of variables through systemic observation 

• It is not possible to infer causation in descriptive research, as the researcher is not doing a manipulation 

• There are three main subtypes of descriptive research: 

• Case studies 

• Surveys 

• Naturalistic observation

Descriptive – Case Study 

• An intensive examination of one individual 

• Can give valuable insight into rare phenomena, providing proof of existence (that something can happen, even if improbable) 

• Can inspire new hypothesis 

• Common in medicine; basis of Freud’s theories 

• Though useful, difficult to generalize to large populations

Descriptive – Survey 

• Record data on a variable (or many variables) in a large population via questionnaires or interviews 

• Can be highly generalizable 

• Surveys are particularly valuable in social psychology (as well in many other fields, like sociology) 

• Many famous examples; Kinsey’s survey on sexual behavior (1948, 1953) among them

Desc. – Naturalistic Observation 

• Observation of an animal in its natural setting without direct intervention 

• Highly generalizable (external validity); avoids concerns about the observer effect 

• Several flaws (most of which relate to the fact you are not intervening directly) 

• Poorly controlled 

• Limited range of variables can be assessed 

• Difficult to study infrequent behaviors and thoughts

5. Contrast fMRI, PET and EEG in terms of spatial resolution and temporal resolution. Describe the signal being measured by each technique. (5 marks)

EEG + ERP – Summary • Great temporal resolution (biggest advantage) • Millisecond scale • Great for measuring rapid changes in arousal/consciousness (regular EEG) and rapid cognitive processes (ERP) • Poor spatial resolution (biggest disadvantage) • Difficult to determine which specific areas are active • Deeper brain areas cannot be measured

PET – Summary • Decent spatial resolution • Better than EEG but worse than MRI • Poor temporal resolution • Difficult to resolve rapid changes in neural activity • Due to its resolution issues, PET is no longer preferred as a structural/functional measure in psychology • It does have other very important uses in neuroscience and medicine (but you won’t need to know these)

fMRI – Summary • Great spatial resolution (great for studying brain structure) • Best out of techniques we have covered today • Can be ‘paired’ w/other techniques (e.g. PET) • Decent temporal resolution • Better than PET (arguably), not as good as EEG or MEG • Lag of seconds between activity and signal is still evident

Multiple Choice Question Answers

1. An experimenter is examining the effects of different diets on stress levels in University students. In this study, people are randomly placed into one of four diet groups. Stress levels are measured by the experimenter once, after the diet is completed. This study uses a: 

   1. Between-subject experimental design

   2. Within-subject experimental design

   3. Mixed experimental design (both between- and within-subject factors)

   4. Observational design

   5. -

2. An experimenter is examining the effects of drugs on memory. In this study, people are placed into one of two groups (drug group or control group). The drug group does their memory test in a classroom while the control group does their memory test in a noisy cafeteria. Here, the testing room would be considered a(n): 

   1. Independent variable

   2. Dependent variable

   3. Confounding variable

   4. All of the above

   5. None of the above

3. Which individual (or individuals) is (or are) known for their contributions to Behaviorism in Psychology: 

   1. William James

   2. Wundt

   3. Watson

   4. A) and B)

   5. A) and C)

4. Which individual is known for their contributions to Cognitive Psychology: 

   1. Freud

   2. Skinner

   3. Watson

   4. William James

   5. None of the above

5. Problems with correlational analysis include:

   1. It is unsuitable for non-linear relationships

   2. It is vulnerable to third factor influences

   3. It does not identify cause

   4. All of the above

   5. None of the above

6. The presence of after images is best explained by:

   1. Dissociative theory

   2. Young-Helmholtz theory

   3. Opponent process theory

   4. Sociocognitive theory

   5. None of the above

7. Which of the following research designs would allow us to determine causation:  

   1. A) Survey

   2. B) Case study

   3. C) Naturalistic observation

   4. D) All of the above

   5. E) None of the above

8. A bathroom scale that is consistently inaccurate by 20 pounds is:

   1. Reliable

   2. Valid

   3. Both of the above

   4. None of the above

   5. -

9. Which of the following could be considered an operational definition of cognitive ability in a scientific study?

   1. A) An IQ test

   2. B) The grade point average on your University transcript

   3. C) Your final mark in a mathematics class

   4. D) All of the above

   5. E) None of the above

10. Which of the following statements is TRUE:

    1. A construct has only one good operational definition

    2. If a study has sampling bias to any degree, it is worthless and should be discarded

    3. Naturalistic observation allows us to infer causation

    4. Experimenters are immune to bias

    5. None of the above

11. A standard for deciding whether an observed experimental result is due to chance is termed ____.

    1. The null hypothesis

    2. The alternative hypothesis

    3. Statistical significance

    4. Randomization

    5. Reasonable doubt

12. Which of the following senses is NOT routed through the thalamus?

    1. A) Vision

    2. B)Hearing

    3. C)Smell

    4. D)Taste

    5. E)Actually, all these senses are routed through the thalamus

13. Which of the following statements about the temporal lobe is TRUE: 

    1. A)It is linked to creativity

    2. B)It is linked to religiosity

    3. C)It is linked to language

    4. D)It is linked to auditory processing

    5. E)All of the above

14. Which of the following statements is TRUE:

    1. A)A construct has only one good operational definition

    2. B)If a study has sampling bias to any degree, it is worthless and should be discarded

    3. C)Naturalistic observation allows us to infer causation

    4. D)Experimenters are immune to bias

    5. E)None of the above

15. In a population, the case that separates the top 50% of the population from the bottom 50% is:

    1. A)Mean

    2. B)Median

    3. C)Mode

    4. D)Standard Deviation

    5. E)None of the above

16. Rods are to the____ of the retina, as cones are to the ____ of the retina.

    1. A)center; periphery

    2. B)left side; right side

    3. C)right side; the left side

    4. D)periphery; center

    5. E)None of the above

17. Which of the following are key ethical principles:

    1. A)Informed consent

    2. B)Freedom to leave

    3. C)Debriefing

    4. D)No unnecessary harm or distress

    5. E)All of the above

18. To treat his epilepsy, HM had a surgical procedure wherein his _____ was removed.

    1. A)Hippocampus and adjoining areas

    2. B)Frontal cortex

    3. C)Temporal lobe

    4. D)Amygdala

    5. E)Hypothalamus

19. The term _________ refers to the manipulation of statistical practices to find an effect. This process typically involves doing repeated re-analysis and re-organization of data until one finds a desired result. 

    1. A)Unrepresentative/biased sample, generalizability concern

    2. B)Expectation

    3. C)Small sample size

    4. D)P-hacking

    5. E)Positive impression management

20. June suffers an injury to the left side of her parietal lobe. You might expect that:

    1. A)She loses feeling on the left side of her body

    2. B)She loses feeling on the right side of her body

    3. C)She loses feeling on both sides of her body

    4. D)She starts experiencing visual disturbances

    5. E)She starts experiencing problems with behavioral inhibition

21. Afif has a hypothesis that episodes of depression result in reduced mathematics ability. From a sample of first year students, he recruits 40 students suffering from depression and 40 non-depressed students. He administers a mathematics test and then compares scores in the depressed and non-depressed groups. This is an example of a:

    1. A)Observational Design

    2. B)Experimental Design

    3. C)Quasi-Experimental Design

    4. D)-

    5. E)-

22. You are looking at the distribution of IQ scores in a population (Group X). The mean of the distribution of IQ in Group X is 120. The standard deviation of the distribution is 10. Erin is in Group X and has an IQ of 99. Stephanie is in Group X and has an IQ of 150. Which of the following is true: 

    1. A)Erin is an outlier

    2. B)Stephanie is an outlier

    3. C)Both are outliers

    4. D)The distribution of IQ in Group X is definitely not normal

    5. E)Findings in Group X can be applied to the rest of the population

23. Christopher suffered a traumatic brain injury in an automobile accident. Since the accident, he has great difficulty in forming new memories but remembers his childhood well, which suggests that his ____ was damaged.

    1. A)hypothalamus

    2. B)hippocampus

    3. C)basal ganglia

    4. D)amygdala

    5. E)All of the above

24. Which percentage is greatest:

    1. A)The proportion of people who’ve had déjà vu

    2. B)The proportion of people who’ve had hallucination

    3. C)The proportion of people sensitive to hypnosis

    4. D)The proportion of dreams that occur during REM

    5. E)The proportion of near-death experiences involving life review

25. The motor cortex initiates all voluntary movements and is found in ____.

    1. A)the frontal lobe

    2. B)Broca's area

    3. C)the limbic system

    4. D)the parietal lobe

    5. E)the occipital lobe