Colonial Latin America - Age of Conquest (Chapter 2) Flashcards

The Age of Conquest

• Thematic Introduction

  • Southern Europe shifted focus to the Atlantic early in the fourteenth century.
  • Genoese and Venetian merchants were established from Seville to London; their ships carried the sea trade of southwestern Europe.
  • Accumulated voyages and navigational instruments (the astrolabe, the quadrant, the compass) built a body of knowledge about the western Ocean.
  • The caravel: lateen-rigged sails, three masts; contributed to voyage success.
  • In 1418, Madeira was rediscovered by the Portuguese under Prince Henry the Navigator; he never ventured far from land, but encouraged great voyages down the African coast.
  • The discovery of the Azores, about a third of the way across the Atlantic, demonstrated sailing skill and confidence to head into the unknown.
  • In 1420, Madeira settlement began, followed by the Azores; a pattern emerged prefiguring methods used to settle Brazil.
  • They established sugar plantations using African slave labor obtained through voyages down the west coast of Africa.
  • The ultimate goal of African voyages: discover a route to India, China, and Japan — the "riches of the east" — learned of through Venetian trade with the Byzantine empire.
  • Portuguese interests extended to gold from the west coast of Africa, learned via Arab caravans in North Africa; aim to eliminate "middlemen" in Indies trade.
  • Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488; by before 1492, the Portuguese knew the whole Atlantic coast of Africa and held a profitable trade in sugar, slaves, gold, ivory, and spices.
  • They had wide experience with Atlantic wind systems and knew how to sail across, with, or against them; Columbus learned much from the Portuguese while living in Madeira and Lisbon, including his trip to the Guinea coast; marriage to a Portuguese ship captain’s daughter aided his connections.
  • Columbus is a highly controversial figure; earlier generations praised him as a genius and visionary who proved half the world wrong.

• The Portuguese Advantage and Atlantic Knowledge

  • Bookkeeping of navigational practice: use of winds, currents, and instruments to chart courses across the Atlantic.
  • Early Atlantic power enabled by exploration, settlement, and the establishment of profitable trade networks.

• Columbus and Scholarly Debate

  • Columbus’s voyages: debated aims, beliefs, and navigation.
  • Contemporary scholars offer critical assessments of his skills and decisions.
  • Carl Sauer, in The Early Spanish Main, argues Columbus’s navigational skills were not above average and often below; he frequently ignored instruments and colleagues’ advice if it clashed with beliefs about locating King Solomon’s Mines or the headwaters of the Ganges near the Terrestrial Paradise.
  • Quote (paraphrased): “From this willful geographical ignorance came the shift from gold to slaves, and the clumsy, ultimately tragic attempt to create colonies wholly dependent upon a native labor force. Columbus’ personal incompetence as a leader helped establish the pattern of conquest and settlement repeated across Spanish America.”

• Major Themes and Implications

  • The shift from gold-focused motives to slave labor and settler colonies.
  • The pattern of conquest and settlement in the Americas, often reliant on coerced indigenous labor.
  • The interplay between exploration, economic motives, and imperial administration.

• Research Report Questions (study prompts)

  • 1. Discuss Columbus’ voyages of discovery: What was he looking for and why did he believe he could sail west to find it?
  • 2. Discuss the conquest of the Caribbean region: Who were the residents in 1492 and what happened to them?
  • 3. Discuss the conquest of Mexico: Who were the residents in 1492 and what happened to them?
  • 4. Discuss the conquest of Peru: Who were the residents in 1492 and what happened to them?
  • 5. According to the authors, what were the "conundrums" of the conquest and why are they relevant?

• Keywords and Terms

  • Hispaniola
  • Cuba
  • Hernán Cortés
  • Moctezuma
  • The Aztec Empire
  • The Inca Empire
  • The Flower Wars
  • Francisco Pizarro
  • Atahualpa
  • Túpac Amaru
  • Viceroyalty of New Spain
  • Viceroyalty of Peru
  • José Martí
  • War of the Triple Alliance
  • Liberalism

• Page 3: Additional Terms and Concepts

  • Domingo Sarmiento

  • Juan Manuel Rosas

  • Caudillo

  • Latifundia

  • Minifundia

  • Latifundista

  • Definitions and Context

  • Caudillo: a political/military leader who commands loyalty and controls power, often in a regional or national context.

  • Latifundia: large rural landholdings, typically owned by a wealthy landowner; often used for plantation-style agriculture and export crops.

  • Minifundia: smaller landholdings typical of peasant or family farms.

  • Latifundista: owner of a latifundia; a landholding magnate in agrarian systems.

• Concepts to Remember for Exam

  • Caravel: a fast, maneuverable sailing ship with lateen sails used by Portuguese and Spanish explorers; contributed to long-distance voyages.
  • Navigational instruments: astrolabe, quadrant, compass; enable more accurate celestial and terrestrial navigation.
  • Wind systems of the Atlantic: knowledge of prevailing winds and currents allowed planned eastward or westward crossings.
  • "Elimination of the middlemen": goal to access Asian goods by direct sea routes, reducing costs and monopolies held by Middle Eastern and Italian traders.
  • Gold-to-slaves shift: economic and strategic pivot in the conquest and settlement patterns; emphasis on enslaved labor in plantations and mines.
  • The “Terrestrial Paradise” and King Solomon’s Mines: rhetorical or symbolic myths used to justify exploration or misdirect navigators.
  • The Flower Wars: Aztec ritual warfare used to capture victims for sacrifice; has implications for conquest and Indigenous resistance.
  • Viceroyalties: administrative divisions in the Spanish Empire, notably New Spain and Peru; used to organize vast territories and control resources.

• Connections to Foundations and Real-World Relevance

  • The Age of Exploration laid the groundwork for global trade networks, colonial empires, and cross-cultural exchanges.
  • Early European expansion reshaped labor systems, including the transatlantic slave trade and plantation economies.
  • Thematic ties to later centuries: independence movements, liberalism, and political reforms linked to the legacies of conquest and empire.

• Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications

  • Ethical questions about colonization, treatment of Indigenous peoples, and the use of slave labor.
  • Debates over leadership, decision-making, and the responsibilities of explorers and colonial empires.
  • Practical implications for how history assesses narratives of exploration: genius vs. error, achievement vs. brutality.

• Notable Dates and Figures (for quick reference)

  • 1418: Madeira rediscovered by Portuguese exploration under Henry the Navigator.
  • 1420: Madeira settlement begins, followed by the Azores.
  • 1488: Bartholomeu Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope.
  • 1492: Columbus’s first voyage and conquest context begins in the Caribbean.

• Quick Reference: “Conundrums” of the Conquest

  • What were the unknowns, uncertainties, ethical questions, and logistical challenges faced during conquest and colonization?
  • How do these conundrums shape our understanding of early modern empires and Indigenous experiences?

• Summary Takeaway

  • The Age of Conquest intertwined technological advances, navigational skill, commercial ambitions, and competing worldviews.
  • The period established patterns of empire, exploitation, and cultural encounter that continued to influence global history for centuries.