AP US History Ultimate Study Guide (copy)

Period 1: 1491-1607

1.1 Context: European Encounters in the Americas

Christopher Columbus Arrival

• Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492

• He was not the first European to reach North America, the Norse had arrived in modern Canada around 1000

• But his arrival marked the beginning of the Contact Period, during which Europe sustained contact with the Americas.

• The period ends in 1607 because that is the year of the first English settlement.

Bering Land Bridge

Bering Land Bridge (Connected Eurasia and North America)

• First people to inhabit North and South America came across Bering Land Bridge.

• Ancestors of the Native Americans could walk across the Bering land bridge from Siberia (in modern Russia) to Alaska.

• During this period, the planet was significantly colder.

• Much of the world's water was locked up in vast polar ice sheets, causing sea levels to drop.

• As the planet warmed, sea levels rose, and this bridge was submerged forming the Bering Strait.

Native Americans in Pre-Columbian North America

• The Pre-Columbian era refers to the period before Christopher Columbus' arrival in the "New World".

• North America was populated by Native Americans, not to be confused with native-born Americans.

Culture clash between European settlers and Native Americans

• European settlers brought different culture, religion, and technology.

• Native Americans had their own complex societies, cultures, and religions.

• Conflicts and misunderstandings occurred between the two groups.

Conflicts throughout American history

• Native Americans resisted European colonization and expansion.

• Many wars and battles between Native Americans and European settlers.

• Enslaved Africans by European settlers first arrived in 1501.

• Policies of forced relocation and assimilation were implemented by the US government.

• Native American populations were greatly reduced and their cultures were suppressed.

1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact

• The marker of 1491 serves as a division between the Native American world and the world that came after European exploration, colonization, and invasion.

• North America was home to hundreds of tribes, cities and societies.

• Indigenous societies in North America before Europeans were definitely very complex.

Permanent Settlements

• The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development.

• Along Northwest coast and in California, tribes developed communities along ocean to hunt whales and salmon, totem poles, and canoes.

• In the northeast, the Mississippi river valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard, some indigenous societies developed.

Nomadic Hunting and Gathering Tribes

• Natives in the Great Plains and surrounding grasslands retained the nomadic lifestyles.

• In Southwest, people had fixed lifestyles.

• The Great Plains was more suitable for hunting and gathering food sources.

1.3 European Exploration in the Americas

Columbus Sails Circa 1492

• New ships, such as caravel allowed for longer exploratory voyages.

• In August of 1492, Colombus used three caravels, supplied and funded by the Spanish crown, to set sail toward India.

• After voyage, when reached land and found a group of people called the Taino and renamed their island San Salvador and claimed it for Spain.

The Age of Exploration

• Columbus voyage pleased the Spanish Monarchs.

• Other European explorers also set sail to the New World in search of gold, glory and spread the word of their God.

1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest

The Columbian Exchange

• Period of rapid exchange of plants, animals, foods, communicable diseases, and diseases.

• Europe had the resources and technology to establish colonies far from home.

Flow of Trade

• It’s between the Old world and the New world.

• Old world refers to Africa, Asia, and Europe.

• Old World to New World: horses, pigs, rice, wheat, grapes

• New World to Old World: corn, potatoes, chocolate, tomatoes, avocado, sweet potatoes.

• The introduction of new crops to Europe helped to increase food production and stimulate growth.

Colonization

• A colony is a territory settled and controlled by a foreign power.

• Columbus arrival initiated a long period of European expansion and colonialism in the Americas.

Spanish Colonial Power

• During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.

• Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies

• Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could.

Native vs. European Views

1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System

Introduction of Slavery in the American Colonies

• Extensive use of enslaved Africans began when colonists from the Caribbean settled the Carolinas

• Until then, indentured servants and, in some situations, enslaved Native Americans had mostly satisfied labor requirements

Expansion of Labor Needs

• As tobacco-growing and, in South Carolina, rice-growing operations expanded, more laborers were needed than indenture could provide

• Events such as Bacon’s Rebellion showed landowners it was not in their best interest to have an abundance of landless, young, white males in their colonies either

Challenges with Enslaving Native Americans

• They knew the land, so they could easily escape and subsequently were difficult to find

• In some Native American tribes, cultivation was considered women’s work, so gender was another obstacle to enslaving the natives

• Europeans brought diseases that often decimated the Native Americans, wiping out 85 to 95 percent of the native population

Turn to Enslaved Africans

• Southern landowners turned increasingly to enslaved Africans for labor

• Unlike Native Americans, enslaved Africans did not know the land, so they were less likely to escape

• Removed from their homelands and communities, and often unable to communicate with one another because they were from different regions of Africa, enslaved Black people initially proved easier to control than Native Americans

• Dark skin of West Africans made it easier to identify enslaved people on sight

• English colonists associated dark skin with inferiority and rationalized Africans’ enslavement

The Slave Trade

• Majority of the slave trade, right up to the Revolution, was directed toward the Caribbean and South America

• More than 500,000 enslaved people were brought to the English colonies (of the over 10 million brought to the New World)

• By 1790, nearly 750,000 Black people were enslaved in England’s North American colonies

The Middle Passage

• Shipping route that brought enslaved people to the Americas

• Was the middle leg of the triangular trade route among the colonies, Europe, and Africa

• Conditions for the Africans aboard were brutally inhumane

• Some committed suicide, many died of sickness or during insurrections

• It was not unusual for one-fifth of the Africans to die on board

• Most reached the New World, where conditions were only slightly better

End of the Atlantic Slave Trade

• Mounting criticism (primarily in the North) of the horrors of the Middle Passage led Congress to end American participation in the Atlantic slave trade on January 1, 1808

• Slavery itself would not end in the United States until 1865

Slavery in the South

• Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season

• Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo

• Plantation owners bought enslaved people for this arduous work

• Treatment at the hands of the owners was often vicious and at times sadistic

Slavery in the North

• Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.

• Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.

• Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island.

• Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City

• Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.

• Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War

Ownership of Slavery

• Only the very wealthy owned enslaved people.

• The vast majority of people remained at a subsistence level.

Slavery in the South

• Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season.

• Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo.

• Plantation owners bought enslaved people for this arduous work.

• Treatment at the hands of the owners was often vicious and at times sadistic.

Slavery in the North

• Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.

• Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania

• Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island

• Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City

Efforts to end slavery

• Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.

• Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War

Ownership of Slavery

• Only the very wealthy owned enslaved people

The vast majority of people remained at a subsistence level.

1.6 Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

The Birth of a New Society

Spanish Colonial Power

• During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.

• Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies

• Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could

Encomienda System

• Under Spain's encomienda system, the crown granted colonists authority over a specified number of natives

• Colonist was obliged to protect those natives and convert them to Catholicism

• In exchange, the colonist was entitled to those natives' labor for such enterprises as sugar harvesting and silver mining.

• This system sounds like a form of slavery because it was a form of slavery.

Competition for Global Dominance

New World Exploration

• Once Spain had colonized much of modern-day South America and the southern tier of North America, other European nations were inspired to try their hands at New World exploration

• They were motivated by a variety of factors such as desire for wealth and resources, clerical fervor to make new Christian converts, and the race to play a dominant role in geopolitics.

• The vast expanses of largely undeveloped North America and the fertile soils in many regions of this new land, opened up virtually endless potential for agricultural profits and mineral extraction

Navigational Advancements

• Improvements in navigation, such as the invention of the sextant in the early 1700s, made sailing across the Atlantic Ocean safer and more efficient.

Joint-Stock Companies

• Intercontinental trade became more organized with the creation of joint-stock companies, corporate businesses with shareholders whose mission was to settle and develop lands in North America

• The most famous ones were the British East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and later, the Virginia Company, which settled Jamestown.

Conflict and Prejudice

• Increased trade and development in the New World also led to increased conflict and prejudice

• Europeans debated how Native Americans should be treated

• Spanish and Portuguese thinkers proposed wildly different approaches to the treatment of Native populations, ranging from peace and tolerance to dominance and enslavement

• The belief in European superiority was nearly universal

Native American Resistance and Adaptation

• Some Native Americans resisted European influence, while others accepted it

• Intermarriage was common between Spanish and French settlers and the natives in their colonized territories (though rare among English and Dutch settlers)

• Many Native Americans converted to Christianity

• Spain was particularly successful in converting much of Mesoamerica to Catholicism through the Spanish mission system

Enslavement and African Adaptation

• Explorers, such as Juan de Oñate, swept through the American Southwest, determined to create Christian converts by any means necessary—including violence

• As colonization spread, the use of enslaved Africans purchased from African traders from their home continent became more common

• Much of the Caribbean and Brazil became permanent settlements for plantations and their enslaved people

• Africans adapted to their new environment by blending the language and religion of their masters with the preserved traditions of their ancestors

• Religions such as voodoo are a blend of Christianity and tribal animism

• Enslaved people sang African songs in the fields as they worked and created art reminiscent of their homeland

• Some, such as the Maroon people, even managed to escape slavery and form cultural enclaves

• Slave uprisings were not uncommon, most notably the Haitian Revolution

The English Arrive

English Colonization

• Unlike other European colonizers, the English sent large numbers of men and women to the agriculturally fertile areas of the East

• Despite our vision of the perfect Thanksgiving table, relationships with local Native Americans were strained, at best.

Intermarriage and Ethnic Groups

• English intermarriage with Native Americans and Africans was rare

• So no new ethnic groups emerged, and social classes remained rigid and hierarchical.

English Attempts to Settle North America

• England’s first attempt to settle North America came a year prior to its victory over Spain, in 1587, when Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored a settlement on Roanoke Island (now part of North Carolina).

• The colony had disappeared by 1590, which is why it came to be known as the Lost Colony.

• The English did not try again until 1607, when they settled Jamestown.

Jamestown and the Virginia Company

• Jamestown was funded by a joint-stock company, a group of investors who bought the right to establish New World plantations from the king

• The company was called the Virginia Company—named for Elizabeth I, known as the Virgin Queen—from which the area around Jamestown took its name.

• The settlers, many of them English gentlemen, were ill-suited to the many adjustments life in the New World required of them, and they were much more interested in searching for gold than in planting crops.

Early Struggles

• Within three months, more than half the original settlers were dead of starvation or disease

• Jamestown survived only because ships kept arriving from England with new colonists.

• Captain John Smith decreed that “he who will not work shall not eat,” and things improved for a time, but after Smith was injured in a gunpowder explosion and sailed back

John Rolfe and the Development of Tobacco

• One of the survivors, John Rolfe, was notable in two ways. First, he married Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas, briefly easing the tension between the natives and the English settlers.

• Second, he pioneered the practice of growing tobacco, which had long been cultivated by Native Americans, as a cash crop to be exported back to England.

• The English public was soon hooked, so to speak, and the success of tobacco considerably brightened the prospects for English settlement in Virginia.

Development of Plantation Slavery

• Because the crop requires vast acreage and depletes the soil (and so requires farmers to constantly seek new fields), the prominent role of tobacco in Virginia’s economy resulted in rapid expansion.

• The introduction of tobacco would also lead to the development of plantation slavery.

Expansion in the Chesapeake

• As new settlements sprang up around Jamestown, the entire area came to be known as the Chesapeake (named after the bay).

• That area today comprises Virginia and Maryland.

• English colonies in North America, such as Jamestown, were largely motivated by financial reasons and the desire for wealth and resources

• Indentured servitude, in which individuals agreed to work for a period of time in exchange for passage to the colonies, was a common way for people to migrate to the Chesapeake

• Indentured servitude was difficult and many did not survive their term, but it provided a path to land ownership and voting rights for working-class men in Europe

• Over 75% of the 130,000 Englishmen who migrated to the Chesapeake during the 17th century were indentured servants

• The success of tobacco as a cash crop in the Chesapeake led to rapid expansion and the development of plantation slavery.

The Headright system

• In 1618, the Virginia Company introduced the headright system as a means of attracting new settlers to the region and addressing the labor shortage created by the emergence of tobacco farming.

• A "headright" was a tract of land, usually about 50 acres, that was granted to colonists and potential settlers.

House of Burgesses

• In 1619, Virginia established the House of Burgesses, in which any property-holding, white male could vote.

• Decisions made by the House of Burgesses, however, had to be approved by the Virginia Company.

• 1619 also marks the introduction of slavery to the English colonies.

French Colonization of North America

• French colonized Quebec City in 1608

• French Jesuit priests attempted to convert native peoples to Roman Catholicism but were more likely to spread diseases

• French colonists were fewer in number compared to Spanish and English and tended to be single men

• French settlers intermarried with native women and tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois (“runners in the woods”) who helped trade for furs

• French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English

• French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598

Impact of French Colonization

• Fewer French settlers in North America compared to Spanish and English

• French settlers intermarried with native women

• French settlers tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois

• French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English

• French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598

The Pilgrims and the Massachusetts Bay Company

• English Calvinists led a Protestant movement called Puritanism in the 16th century

• Puritans sought to purify the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic practices

• English monarchs of the early 17th century persecuted the Puritans

• Puritans began to look for a new place to practice their faith

• One group of Puritans, called Separatists, decided to leave England and start fresh in the New World

• In 1620, Separatists set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower, but went off course and landed in modern-day Massachusetts

• The group decided to settle where they had landed and named the settlement Plymouth.

The Pilgrims

• Led by William Bradford

• Signed the Mayflower Compact

• Created a legal authority and assembly

• Government's power derived from consent of governed, not God

• Received assistance from local Native Americans

The Mayflower Compact

• Important for creating legal system for colony

• Asserted government's power from consent of governed

Assistance from Native Americans

• Life-saving assistance

• Pilgrims landed at site of Patuxet village wiped out by disease

• Tisquantum/Squanto, an inhabitant of the village, was captured and brought to Europe as enslaved person

• Returned to homeland, found it depopulated

• Became Pilgrims' interpreter and taught them how to plant in new home.

The Great Puritan Migration

• 1629-1642

• Established by Congregationalists (Puritans who wanted to reform Anglican church from within)

• Led by Governor John Winthrop

Massachusetts Bay

• Developed along Puritan ideals

• Winthrop delivered famous sermon, "A Model of Christian Charity" urging colonists to be a "city upon a hill"

Puritan Philosophy

• Believed in covenant with God

• Concept of covenants central to entire philosophy (political and religious)

• Government as covenant among people

• Work served communal ideal

• Puritan church always to be served

Religious Tolerance

• Both Separatists and Congregationalists did not tolerate religious freedom in their colonies

• Both had experienced and fled religious persecution

Calvinist Principles

• Settlers of Massachusetts Bay Colony were strict Calvinists

• Calvinist principles dictated their daily lives

• Protestant work ethic and relationship to market economy

• Roots of Civil War may be traced back to founding of Chesapeake and New England

Religious Intolerance

• Two major incidents during first half of 17th century

• Roger Williams, a minister in Salem Bay settlement, taught that church and state should be separate

• Banished and moved to Rhode Island, founded colony with charter allowing for free exercise of religion

• Anne Hutchinson, a prominent proponent of antinomianism, banished for challenging Puritan beliefs and authority of Puritan clergy

• Anne Hutchinson was a woman in a resolutely patriarchal society which turned many against her.

Economic and Social Differences

• Plantation economy dependent on slave labor developed in Chesapeake and southern colonies

• New England became commercial center.

Puritan Immigration

• Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England

• Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)

• With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution

Differences between New England and Chesapeake

• Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males

• Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families

• Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns

• Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities

• New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses

• Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans

• South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers

Period 2: 1607-1754

2.1 Colonization

British Treatment of the Colonies

• Period preceding the French and Indian War is often described as salutary neglect or benign neglect.

• England regulated trade and government in its colonies but interfered in colonial affairs as little as possible.

• England set up absentee customs officials and colonies were left to self-govern.

• England occasionally turned a blind eye to the colonies' violations of trade restrictions.

• Developed a large degree of autonomy.

• Helped fuel revolutionary sentiments when monarchy later attempted to gain greater control of the New World.

English Regulation of Colonial Trade

• Throughout the colonial period, Europeans used a theory called mercantilism.

• Mercantilists believed that economic power was rooted in a favorable balance of trade and control of specie

• Colonies were important mostly for economic reasons, which is why the British considered their colonies in the West Indies more important than their colonies on the North American continent

• Colonies on the North American continent were seen primarily as markets for British and West Indian goods, but also as sources of raw materials

British Control of Colonial Commerce

• British government encouraged manufacturing in England and placed protective tariffs on imports that might compete with English goods

• Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and 1673, required colonists to buy goods only from England, sell certain of their products only to England, and import non-English goods via English ports and pay a duty on those imports

• Navigation Acts also prohibited the colonies from manufacturing a number of goods that England already produced

• Wool Act of 1699, forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies

• Molasses Act of 1733, imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies

• New Englanders frequently refused to pay the taxes imposed by these acts

Wool Act of 1699

• Forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies

• Some colonists protested this law by dealing only in flax and hemp

Molasses Act of 1733

• Imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies

• New Englanders frequently refused to pay the tax, an early example of rebellion against the Crown.

Colonial Governments

• Despite trade regulations, colonists maintained a high degree of autonomy

• Each colony had a governor appointed by the king or proprietor

• Governor had powers similar to the king, but also dependent on colonial legislatures for money

• Governor's power relied on cooperation of colonists, most ruled accordingly

Legislatures:

• Except for Pennsylvania, all colonies had bicameral legislatures modeled after British Parliament

• Lower house functioned similar to House of Representatives, members directly elected by white, male property holders and had "power of the purse"

• Upper house made of appointees serving as advisors to governor, had some legislative and judicial powers

• Most upper house members chosen from local population and concerned with protecting interests of colonial landowners

British Central Government:

• British never established powerful central government in colonies

• Autonomy allowed eased transition to independence in following century

Colonial Efforts Toward Centralization:

• Small efforts made by colonists towards centralized government

• New England Confederation most prominent attempt

• No real power, but offered advice to northeastern colonies when disputes arose

• Provided opportunity for colonists from different settlements to meet and discuss mutual problems

2.2 The Regions of the British Colonies

Development of the Colonies

• Colonies "grew up," developing fledgling economies.

• Beginnings of an American culture, as opposed to a transplanted English culture, took root.

Puritan Immigration

• Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England

• Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)

• With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution

Differences between New England and Chesapeake

• Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males

• Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families

• Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns

• Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities

• New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses

• Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans

• South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers

Other Early Colonies

Proprietorships

• Several colonies were owned by one person, usually received land as gift from king

• Connecticut and Maryland were two such colonies

Connecticut

• Received charter in 1635

• Produced Fundamental Orders, considered first written constitution in British North America

Maryland

• Granted to Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore

• Calvert intended to create haven colony for Catholics and make a profit growing tobacco

• Offered religious tolerance for all Christians but tension between faiths soon arose

• Act of Tolerance passed in 1649 to protect religious freedom but situation devolved into religious civil war

New York

• Royal gift to James, king's brother

• Dutch Republic was largest commercial power of the century and economic rival of the British

• Dutch had established initial settlement in 1614 near present-day Albany, which they called New Netherland

• In 1664, Charles II of England waged war against the Dutch Republic and captured New Netherland

• James became Duke of York, and when he became king in 1685, he proclaimed New York a royal colony

• Dutch were allowed to remain in colony on generous terms and made up large segment of population for many years

New Jersey

• Given to friends of Charles II, who sold it off to investors, many of whom were Quakers

Pennsylvania

• William Penn, a Quaker, received colony as a gift from King Charles II

• Charles had a friendship with William Penn and wanted to export Quakers to someplace far from England

• Penn established liberal policies towards religious freedom and civil liberties

• Pennsylvania had natural bounty and attracted settlers through advertising, making it one of the fastest growing colonies

• Penn attempted to treat Native Americans more fairly but had mixed results

• Penn made a treaty with the Delawares to take only as much land as could be walked by a man in three days. His son, however, renegotiated the treaty, hiring three marathon runners for the same task, thereby claiming considerably more land.

Carolina Colony

• Proprietary colony (English-owned)

• Split into North and South in 1729

North Carolina

• Settled by Virginians

South Carolina

• Settled by descendants of Englishmen who had colonized Barbados

• Barbados’ primary export: sugar

• Plantations worked by enslaved people

Slavery in the Colonies

• Existed in Virginia since 1619

• Arrival of settlers from Barbados marked the beginning of the slave era in the colonies

• First Englishmen in the New World to see widespread slavery at work

Formation of Georgia

• Formation of South Carolina and ongoing armed conflicts with Spanish Florida prompted British to support formation of Georgia by James Oglethorpe in 1732

• Georgia initially banned slavery

Slavery in Georgia

• Ban was soon overturned due to economic advantage and growth afforded to neighboring South Carolina due to slavery

Proprietary Colonies

• Most of the proprietary colonies were converted to royal colonies (owned by the king)

• Greater control over government

Royal Colonies

• By the time of the Revolution, only Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were not royal colonies.

2.3 Diversity in the Colonies

Population Growth in the Colonies

• Population in 1700 was 250,000 and by 1750 it was 1,250,000

• Substantial non-English European populations (Scotch-Irish, Scots, Germans) started arriving in large numbers during the 18th century

• English settlers continued to come to the New World as well

• Black population in 1750 was more than 200,000

• In a few colonies, Black population would outnumber whites by the time of the Revolution

• Over 90% of colonists lived in rural areas

Rural Life in the Colonies

• Labor divided along gender lines, men doing outdoor work and women doing indoor work

• Opportunities for social interaction outside the family were limited

• Patriarchy society, children and women were subordinate to men

• Children's education was secondary to their work schedules

• Women were not allowed to vote, draft a will, or testify in court

Black People in the Colonies

• Predominantly lived in the countryside and in the South

• Lives varied from region to region, with conditions being most difficult in the South

• Enslaved people who worked on large plantations and had specialized skills fared better than field hands

• Condition of servitude was demeaning

• Enslaved people often developed extended kinship ties and strong communal bonds to cope with the misery of servitude

• In the North, Black people often had trouble maintaining a sense of community and history.

Conditions in the Cities

• Often worse than in the countryside

• Immigrants settled in cities for work, but work paid too little and poverty was widespread

• Sanitary conditions were primitive, epidemics such as smallpox were common

• Cities offered residents wider contact with other people and the outside world

• Centers for progress and education

Education in the Colonies

• Citizens with anything above a rudimentary level of education were rare

• Nearly all colleges established during this period served primarily to train ministers

• Early colleges in the North include Harvard and Yale (established in 1636 and 1701, respectively)

• College of William and Mary was chartered in the South in 1693

Regional Differences in the Colonies

• New England society centered on trade, Boston was the colonies' major port city

• Population farmed for subsistence, subscribed to rigid Puritanism

• Middle colonies (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey) had more fertile land and focused primarily on farming

• Lower South (the Carolinas) concentrated on cash crops such as tobacco and rice

• Slavery played a major role on plantations, but majority of Southerners were subsistence farmers

• Blacks constituted up to half the population of some southern colonies

• Chesapeake colonies (Maryland and Virginia) combined features of the middle colonies and the lower South

• Slavery and tobacco played a larger role in the Chesapeake than in the middle colonies

• Chesapeake residents also farmed grain and diversified their economies

• Development of major cities in the Chesapeake region distinguished it from the lower South, which was almost entirely rural.

2.4 Major Events in the Period

Bacon's Rebellion:

• Took place on Virginia's western frontier in 1676

• Frontier farmers forced west into back country due to all coastal land being claimed

• Encroaching on land inhabited by Native Americans led to raids on frontier farmers

• Frontier settlers sought to band together and drive out native tribes

• Stymied by government in Jamestown, which did not want to risk full-scale war

• Class resentment grew as frontiersmen suspected eastern elites viewed them as expendable "human shields"

• Nathaniel Bacon, a recent immigrant, rallied the farmers and demanded Governor William Berkeley grant him authority to raise a militia and attack nearby tribes

• When Berkeley refused, Bacon and his men attacked the Susquehannock and Pamunkeys, who were actually allies of the English

• Rebels then turned their attention to Jamestown, sacking and burning the city

• Rebellion dissolved when Bacon died of dysentery, conflict between colonists and Native Americans averted with new treaty

• Often cited as early example of populist uprising in America

Stono Uprising:

• First and one of the most successful slave rebellions

• Took place in September 1739 near Stono River, outside of Charleston, South Carolina

• Approximately 20 enslaved people stole guns and ammunition, killed storekeepers and planters, and liberated a number of enslaved people

• Rebels fled to Florida, where they hoped the Spanish colonists would grant them their freedom

• Colonial militia caught up with them and attacked, killing some and capturing most of the others

• Those who were captured and returned were later executed

• As a result of the Stono Uprising, many colonies passed more restrictive laws to govern the behavior of enslaved people

• Fear of slave rebellions increased, and New York experienced a "witch hunt" period

Salem Witch Trials:

• Took place in 1692, not the first witch trials in New England

• During the first 70 years of English settlement in the region, 103 people (almost all women) had been tried on charges of witchcraft

• Never before had so many been accused at once, more than 130 "witches" were jailed or executed in Salem

• Historians have different explanations for why the mass hysteria started and ended so quickly

• Region had recently endured the autocratic control of the Dominion of New England

• In 1691, Massachusetts became a royal colony under new monarchs, suffrage was extended to all Protestants

• War against French and Native Americans on the Canadian border increased regional anxieties

Puritanism in America

• Feared that their religion was being undermined by commercialism in cities like Boston

• Many second and third generation Puritans lacked the fervor of the original settlers

• Led to the Halfway Covenant in 1662 which changed rules for Puritan baptisms

  • Prior to the Halfway Covenant, a Puritan had to experience God's grace for their children to be baptized

  • With many losing interest in the church, the Puritan clergy decided to baptize all children whose parents were baptized

  • However, those who had not experienced God's grace were not allowed to vote

• All of these factors (religious, economic, and gender) combined to create mass hysteria in Salem in 1692

  • Accusers were mostly teenage girls who accused prominent citizens of consorting with the Devil

  • Town leaders turned against the accusers and the hysteria ended

• Generations that followed original settlers were generally less religious

• By 1700, women constituted the majority of active church members

• First Great Awakening in the 1730s and 1740s

  • Wave of religious revivalism in the colonies and Europe

  • Led by Congregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards and Methodist preacher George Whitefield

  • Edwards preached severe, predeterministic doctrines of Calvinism

  • Whitefield preached a Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality

  • Often described as a response to the Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement emphasizing rationalism over emotionalism or spirituality.

Benjamin Franklin

• Self-made, self-educated man who typified Enlightenment ideals in America

• Printer's apprentice who became a wealthy printer and respected intellectual

• Created Poor Richard's Almanack which remains influential to this day

• Did pioneering work in electricity, inventing bifocals, the lightning rod, and the Franklin stove

• Founded the colonies' first fire department, post office, and public library

• Espoused Enlightenment ideals about education, government, and religion

• Colonists' favorite son until George Washington came along

• Served as an ambassador in Europe and negotiated a crucial alliance with the French and peace treaty that ended the Revolutionary War.

Period 3: 1754-1800

3.1 The Seven Years’ War (1754–1763)

The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)

• Also called the French and Indian War, it was actually one of several “wars for empire” fought between the British and the French.

• The war was the inevitable result of colonial expansion, where English settlers moved into the Ohio Valley, and the French tried to stop them by building fortified outposts.

• George Washington led a colonial contingent, which attacked a French outpost and lost.

• Washington surrendered and was allowed to return to Virginia, where he was welcomed as a hero.

• Most Native Americans in the region allied themselves with the French, who had traditionally had the best relations with Native Americans of any of the European powers.

• The war dragged on for years before the English finally gained the upper hand.

• When the war was over, England was the undisputed colonial power of the continent.

• The treaty gave England control of Canada and almost everything east of the Mississippi Valley.

• The French kept only a few small islands, underscoring the impact of mercantilism since the French prioritized two small but highly profitable islands over the large landmass of Canada.

The Seven Years' War: Consequences

• William Pitt, the English Prime Minister during the war, was supportive of the colonists and encouraged them to join the war effort.

• When the leadership in Britain changed after the war, that led to resentment by the colonists against the British rule.

• Native Americans had previously been able to use French and English disputes to their own advantage, but the English victory spelled trouble for them.

• The Native Americans particularly disliked the English, because English expansionism was more disruptive to their way of life.

• In the aftermath of the war, the English raised the price of goods sold to the Native Americans and ceased paying rent on their western forts.

• In response, Ottawa war chief Pontiac rallied a group of tribes in the Ohio Valley and attacked colonial outposts, which is known as Pontiac's Rebellion.

• In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, the Paxton Boys, a group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania murdered several in the Susquehannock tribe.

Albany Plan of Union

• Developed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754

• Proposed an intercolonial government and a system for collecting taxes for the colonies' defense

• Representatives from seven colonies met in Albany, New York to consider the plan

• Franklin also tried to negotiate a treaty with the Iroquois

• Plan was rejected by the colonies as they did not want to relinquish control of their right to tax themselves or unite under a single colonial legislature

• Franklin's frustration was well publicized in a political cartoon showing a snake broken into pieces with the words "Join or Die."

3.2 Taxation without Representation

British Laws and Policies

The Sugar Act, the Currency Act, and the Stamp Act

• Financing the war resulted in a huge debt for the British government

• King George III and Prime Minister George Grenville felt that colonists should help pay the debt

• Colonists believed they had fulfilled their obligation by providing soldiers

New Regulations and Taxes:

• Parliament imposed new regulations and taxes on colonists

• First was the Sugar Act of 1764, established new duties and provisions aimed at deterring molasses smugglers

• Prior to the decade leading up to the Revolutionary War, there was little colonial resistance to previous trade and manufacturing regulations

• The Sugar Act actually lowered the duty on molasses coming into the colonies from the West Indies

Colonial Response:

• Angry about the new regulations being more strictly enforced and the duties being collected

• Difficult for colonial shippers to avoid committing even minor violations of the Sugar Act

• Violators were to be arrested and tried in vice-admiralty courts without jury deliberation

• Suggested to some colonists that Parliament was overstepping its authority and violating their rights as Englishmen.

Colonial Discontent:

• Sugar Act, Currency Act, and Proclamation of 1763 caused a great deal of discontent in the colonies

• Colonists bristled at British attempts to exert greater control

• End of Britain's long-standing policy of salutary neglect

• Economic depression further exacerbated the situation

• Colonial protest was uncoordinated and ineffective

The Stamp Act:

• Passed in 1765 by Parliament

• Aimed at raising revenue specifically

• Awakened the colonists to the likelihood of more taxes to follow

• Demonstrated that colonies' tradition of self-taxation was being unjustly taken by Parliament

• Broad-based tax, covering all legal documents and licenses

• Affected almost everyone, particularly lawyers

• Tax on goods produced within the colonies

Reaction to the Stamp Act:

• Built on previous grievances and more forceful than any protest preceding it

• Pamphlet by James Otis, called The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, laid out the colonists’ argument against the taxes

• Otis put forward the “No taxation without representation” argument

• Argued for either representation in Parliament or a greater degree of self-government for the colonies

• British scoffed at the notion, arguing that colonists were already represented in Parliament through the theory of virtual representation

• Colonists knew that their representation would be too small to protect their interests

• Wanted the right to determine their own taxes.

Opposition to the Stamp Act:

• Opponents united in various colonies

• Virginia, Patrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves, asserting colonists’ right to self-government

• Boston, mobs burned customs officers in effigy, tore down a customs house, and nearly destroyed the governor’s mansion

• Protest groups formed throughout the colonies, called themselves Sons of Liberty

• Opposition was so effective that no duty collectors were willing to perform their job

Repeal of the Stamp Act:

• In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act

• George III replaced Prime Minister Grenville with Lord Rockingham, who had opposed the Stamp Act

• Rockingham oversaw the repeal but also linked it to the passage of the Declaratory Act, which asserted British government's right to tax and legislate in all cases anywhere in the colonies

• Although the colonists had won the battle over the stamp tax, they had not yet gained any ground in the war of principles over Parliament's powers in the colonies

The Townshend Acts:

• Drafted by Charles Townshend, minister of the exchequer

• Taxed goods imported directly from Britain, the first such tax in the colonies

• Some of the tax collected was set aside for the payment of tax collectors, meaning that colonial assemblies could no longer withhold government officials’ wages in order to get their way

• Created even more vice-admiralty courts and several new government offices to enforce the Crown’s will in the colonies

• Suspended the New York legislature because it had refused to comply with a law requiring the colonists to supply British troops

• Instituted writs of assistance, licenses that gave the British the power to search any place they suspected of hiding smuggled goods

Colonial Response

• Stronger than previous protests

• Massachusetts Assembly sent letter (Massachusetts Circular Letter) to other assemblies asking that they protest the new measures in unison

• British fanned the flames of protest by ordering the assemblies not to discuss the Massachusetts letter

• Governors dissolved legislatures that discussed the letter, further infuriating colonists

• Colonists held numerous rallies and organized boycotts

• Sought support of “commoners” for the first time

• Boycotts were most successful because they affected British merchants, who then joined the protest

• Colonial women were essential in the effort to replace British imports with “American” (New England) products

• After two years, Parliament repealed the Townshend

The Quartering Act of 1765:

• Stationed large numbers of troops in America

• Made the colonists responsible for the cost of feeding and housing them

• Even after the Townshend duties were repealed, the soldiers remained, particularly in Boston

• Officially sent to keep the peace but heightened tensions

• Detachment was huge - 4,000 men in a city of only 16,000

• Soldiers sought off-hour employment and competed with colonists for jobs

The Boston Massacre:

• On March 5, 1770, a mob pelted a group of soldiers with rock-filled snowballs

• Soldiers fired on the crowd, killing five

• Propaganda campaign that followed suggested that the soldiers had shot into a crowd of innocent bystanders

• John Adams defended the soldiers in court, helping to establish a tradition of giving a fair trial to all who are accused

The Calm, and Then the Storm

• Boston Massacre shocks both sides into de-escalating rhetoric

• Uneasy status quo falls into place for next two years

• Colonial newspapers discuss ways to alter relationship between mother country and colonies

• Very few radicals suggest independence

• Things pick up in 1772 when British implement Townshend Acts (colonial administrators paid from customs revenues)

• Colonists respond cautiously, setting up Committees of Correspondence to trade ideas and inform one another of political mood

• Mercy Otis Warren and other writers call for revolution

• John Dickinson's "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania" unites colonists against Townshend Acts

• British grant East India Tea Company monopoly on tea trade in colonies, colonists see new taxes imposed

• Boston Tea Party results in British response with Coercive/Intolerable Acts (closes Boston Harbor, tightens control over Massachusetts government, Quartering Act)

• Quebec Act (grants greater liberties to Catholics, extends boundaries of Quebec Territory) further impeding westward expansion, causing further dissatisfaction among colonists.

3.3 Congress

The First Continental Congress

• Convened in late 1774

• All colonies except Georgia sent delegates

• Represented diverse perspectives

• Goal: enumerate American grievances, develop strategy for addressing grievances, formulate colonial position on relationship between royal government and colonial governments

• Came up with list of laws colonists wanted repealed

• Agreed to impose boycott on British goods until grievances were redressed

• Formed Continental Association with towns setting up committees of observation to enforce boycott

• These committees became de facto governments

• Formulated limited set of parameters for acceptable Parliamentary interference in colonial affairs

Winter of 1774 and Spring of 1775

• Committees of observation expanded powers

• Replaced British-sanctioned assemblies in many colonies

• Led acts of insubordination (collecting taxes, disrupting court sessions, organizing militias and stockpiling weapons)

• John Adams later commented "The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people"

The Shot Heard ‘Round the World

• The British Underestimated the Pro-Revolutionary Movement

• Government officials believed if they arrested ringleaders and confiscated weapons, violence could be averted

• Dispatched troops to confiscate weapons in Concord, Massachusetts in April 1775

• Troops had to pass through Lexington, where they confronted a small colonial militia (minutemen)

• Someone fired a shot, which drew British return fire

• Minutemen suffered 18 casualties (8 dead)

• British proceeded to Concord where they faced a larger militia

• Militia inflicted numerous casualties and forced British to retreat

• Battle of Concord referred to as "the shot heard 'round the world"

3.4 The Pre-Revolutionary War Era

• Colonists used time to rally citizens to the cause of independence

• Not all were convinced, Loyalists included government officials, devout Anglicans, merchants dependent on trade with England, religious and ethnic minorities who feared persecution by the rebels

• Many enslaved people believed their chances for liberty were better with the British than with the colonists

• Increase in slave insurrections dampened some Southerners' enthusiasm for revolution

• Patriots were mostly white Protestant property holders and gentry, as well as urban artisans, especially in New England

• Much of the rest of the population hoped the whole thing would blow over

• Quakers of Pennsylvania were pacifists and wanted to avoid war.

The Second Continental Congress

• Prepared for war by establishing a Continental Army, printing money, and creating government offices to supervise policy

• Chose George Washington to lead the army because he was well-liked and a Southerner

• John Dickinson and the Olive Branch Petition

• Many delegates followed John Dickinson who was pushing for reconciliation with Britain using the Olive Branch Petition

• Adopted by the Continental Congress on July 5, 1775

• Last-ditch attempt to avoid armed conflict

• King George III was not interested since he considered the colonists to be in open rebellion

• One year before the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the colonial leaders were trying to reconcile with the mother country.

The Declaration of Independence

• Published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine, an English printer

• Advocated for colonial independence and republicanism over monarchy

• Sold more than 100,000 copies in its first three months

• Accessible to colonists who couldn't always understand the Enlightenment-speak of the Founding Fathers

• Helped swing support to the patriot cause among people who were unsure about attacking the mother country

Success of Common Sense

• Bigger success than James Otis's The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved

• Literacy rates in New England were higher due to the Puritan legacy of teaching children to read the Bible

• Nevertheless, Paine's pamphlet reached a wider audience, including those who couldn't read

• Proportional equivalent of selling 13 million downloads today

Role of Propaganda

• Rebels were looking for a masterpiece of propaganda to rally colonists to their cause

• Common Sense served as this masterpiece and helped swing support to the patriot cause.

Declaration of Independence

• Commissioned by the Congress in June 1776

• Written by Thomas Jefferson

• Enumerated the colonies' grievances against the Crown

• Articulated the principle of individual liberty and government's responsibility to serve the people

• Despite its flaws, it remains a powerful document

• Signed on July 4, 1776

The Significance of Declaration of Independence

• The Revolutionary War became a war for independence with the signing of the Declaration

• The Declaration not only set out the colonies' complaints against the British government but also laid out the philosophical underpinnings of the revolution, most notably the assertion that all men are created equal and have certain inalienable rights

• The Declaration has been considered as a seminal document in American history, and has been a source of inspiration for movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.

The Battle of Yorktown

• Occurred on October 17, 1781

• Symbolic end to the American Revolution

• Major British general, Cornwallis, was surrounded by the French navy and George Washington’s troops, and surrendered

• Began a long period of negotiations between the American colonies and Great Britain, which would finally end the war in October of 1783

Other Facts about the War

• Continental Army had trouble recruiting good soldiers

• Congress eventually recruited Black people, and up to 5,000 fought on the side of the rebels

• Franco-American Alliance, negotiated by Ben Franklin in 1778, brought the French into the war on the side of the colonists

• Treaty of Paris, signed at the end of 1783, granted the United States independence and generous territorial rights

3.5 The Articles of Confederation

Articles of Confederation

• Sent to the colonies for ratification in 1777 by the Continental Congress

• The first national constitution of the United States

• Intentionally created little to no central government due to fear of creating a tyrannical government

Limitations of the Articles of Confederation

• Gave the federal government no power to raise an army

• Could not enforce state or individual taxation, or a military draft

• Could not regulate trade among the states or international trade

• Had no executive or judicial branch

• Legislative branch gave each state one vote, regardless of the state's population

• In order to pass a law, 9 of the 13 of the states had to agree

• In order to amend or change the Articles, unanimous approval was needed

Impact of the Limitations

• These limitations hurt the colonies during Shays's Rebellion.

• Eventually, the limitations of the Articles of Confederation led to the drafting of the Constitution of the United States.

3.6 A New Constitution

By 1787,

• The federal government lacked sufficient authority under the Articles of Confederation.

• Alexander Hamilton was concerned about no uniform commercial policy and fear for the survival of the new republic.

Annapolis Convention

• Hamilton convened the meeting -Only five delegates showed up

Constitutional Convention

• Congress consented to a "meeting in Philadelphia" for the sole purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.

• Delegates from all states except Rhode Island attended the meeting.

• Meeting took place during the long, hot summer of 1787.

Delegates:

• 55 delegates

• All men

• All white

• Many wealthy lawyers or landowners

• Many owned enslaved people

• Came from different ideological backgrounds

New Jersey Plan:

• Called for modifications to Articles of Confederation

• Called for equal representation from each state

Virginia Plan:

• Proposed by James Madison

• Called for new government based on principle of checks and balances

• Number of representatives for each state based on population

Three-tiered federal government:

• Executive branch led by president

• Legislative branch composed of bicameral Congress

• Judicial branch composed of Supreme Court

Legislative Branch:

Expanded powers:

• Enforce federal taxation

• Regulate trade between states

• Regulate international trade

• Coin and borrow money

• Create postal service

• Authorize military draft

• Declare war

Presidential Election:

• Indirectly chosen by Electoral College

• College composed of political leaders representing popular vote of each state

• To win state's electoral votes, candidate must win majority of popular vote in that state

• State's electoral count is sum of senators and representatives (determined by population)

• Gives states with larger populations more power in presidential elections

Convention:

• Lasted 4 months

• Delegates hammered out compromises

• Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) blended NJ and VA plans for bicameral legislature

Constitution established:

• House of Representatives elected by people

• Senate elected by state legislatures

• President and VP elected by Electoral College

• Three branches of government: executive, legislative, judicial

• Power of checks and balances

Three-Fifths Compromise:

• Method for counting enslaved people in southern states for "proportional" representation in Congress

• Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person

Signing of the Constitution:

• Only three of 42 remaining delegates refused to sign

• Two refused because it did not include a bill of rights.

Ratification of Constitution:

• Not guaranteed

• Opponents (Anti-Federalists) portrayed federal government as all-powerful beast

• Anti-Federalists came from backcountry and were particularly appalled by absence of bill of rights

• Position resonated in state legislatures where fate of Constitution lay

• Some held out for promise of immediate addition of Bill of Rights upon ratification

Federalist Position:

• Forcefully and persuasively argued in Federalist Papers

• Papers anonymously authored by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay

• Published in New York newspaper and later widely circulated

• Critical in swaying opinion in New York, a large and important state

• Other important states of the era: Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts

Constitution:

• Went into effect in 1789

• Bill of Rights added in 1791

3.7 The Washington Presidency

George Washington as First President:

• Unanimously chosen by Electoral College

• Not sought presidency, but most popular figure in colonies

• Accepted role out of sense of obligation

Washington's Presidency:

• Exercised authority with care and restraint

• Used veto only if convinced bill was unconstitutional

• Comfortable delegating responsibility, created government of best minds of his time

• Created a cabinet (not specifically granted in Constitution but every president since has had one)

• Cabinet is made up of heads of executive departments, functions as president's chief group of advisors

Cabinet Selections:

• Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state

• Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury

• Disagreed on proper relationship between federal and state government

• Hamilton favored strong central government, weaker state governments

• Jefferson feared monarchy/tyranny, favored weaker federal government with main powers of defense and international commerce

National Bank Debate:

• Hamilton proposed National Bank to help regulate and strengthen economy

• Both houses of Congress approved but Washington uncertain of constitutionality

• Debate established two main schools of thought on constitutional law

• Strict constructionists (led by Jefferson and Madison) argued bank not necessary and thus beyond national government's powers

• Hamilton (broad constructionist) argued bank implied power of government and not explicitly forbidden by Constitution

• Washington agreed with Hamilton and signed bill

Hamilton's Treasury:

• Busy and successful tenure

• Handled national debt accrued during war

• Financial plan called for federal government to assume states' debts, repay by giving debt holders land on western frontier

• Plan favored northern banks and drew accusations of helping monied elite at expense of working classes

• Struck political deal to get most of plan implemented, concession was southern location for nation's capital

• Capital moved to Washington D.C. in 1800

French Revolution and Washington Administration:

• Took place during Washington's presidency

• Caused considerable debate between Jefferson and Hamilton

• Jefferson supported revolution and republican ideals

• Hamilton had aristocratic leanings, disliked revolutionaries

• Issue came to forefront when France and England resumed hostilities

U.S. Neutrality:

• British were primary trading partner after war, nudged U.S. toward neutrality in French-English conflict

• Jefferson agreed on neutrality as correct course to follow

• Washington declared U.S. intention to remain "friendly and impartial" (Neutrality Proclamation)

• Genêt's visit sparked rallies by American supporters of the revolution

3.8 Origins of Two-Party System:

Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson

• Federalists (favoring strong federal government)

• Republicans/Democratic-Republicans (followers of Jefferson)

• Development of political parties troubled framers of the Constitution, seen as factions dangerous to survival of Republic

Note:

• Federalists who supported ratification of the Constitution are often the same people as Federalists who favored strong federal government.

• Republican party created in 1850s is a very different group which still survives today.

Hamilton's Financial Program and Whiskey Rebellion:

• Implemented excise tax on whiskey to raise revenue

• Farmers in western Pennsylvania resisted, instigating Whiskey Rebellion

• Washington dispatched militia to disperse rebels, demonstrated new government's power to respond

• Rebellion highlighted class tensions between inland farmers and coastal elites

Jay's Treaty:

• Negotiated by John Jay to address British evacuation of NW and free trade violations

• Prevented war with Great Britain, but considered too many concessions towards British

• Congress attempted to withhold funding to enforce treaty

• Washington refused to submit documents, establishing precedent of executive privilege

• Considered low point of Washington's administration

Pinckney's Treaty:

• Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney with Spain, addressing use of Mississippi River, duty-free access to markets, and removal of Spanish forts on American soil

• Spain promised to try to prevent Native American attacks on Western settlers

• Ratified by U.S. Senate in 1796, considered high point of Washington's administration

Washington's Farewell Address:

• Declined to run for third term, set final precedent

• Composed in part by Alexander Hamilton

• Warned future presidents against "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world"

• Promoted notion of friendly relationships with all nations, but avoiding permanent alliances

• Warning remained prominent part of American foreign policy through mid-20th century

3.9 Republican Motherhood

General

• During the 1790s, women’s roles in courtship, marriage, and motherhood were reevaluated in light of the new republic and its ideals

• Women were largely excluded from political activity but had an important civil role and responsibility

• Women were to be the teachers and producers of virtuous male citizens

Private Virtue

• Public virtue had been a strictly masculine quality in the past, private virtue emerged as a very important quality for women

• Women were given the task of inspiring and teaching men to be good citizens through romance and motherhood

• Women were to entertain only suitors with good morals, providing more incentive for men to be more ethical

Motherhood

• Women held a tremendous influence on their son

• Advocates for female education spoke out, arguing that educated women would be better mothers, who would produce better citizens

• Even though the obligations of women had grown to include this new political meaning, traditional gender roles were largely unchanged as the education of women was meant only in service to husbands and family

Republican Motherhood

• The idea of Republican Motherhood emerged in the early 1800s

• The role of the mother became more prominent in child-rearing

• Mothers were now expected to raise educated children who would contribute positively to the United States.

3.10 The Adams Presidency

General

• The Electoral College selected John Adams, a Federalist, as Washington’s successor

• Under the then-current rules, the second-place candidate became vice president, so Adams’s vice president was the Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson

Washington Era

• Following the Washington Era, Adams’s presidency was bound to be an anticlimax

• Adams, argumentative and elitist, was a difficult man to like

• He was also a hands-off administrator, often allowing Jefferson’s political rival Alexander Hamilton to take charge

• The animosity between Jefferson and Hamilton and the growing belligerence between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans set the ugly, divisive tone for Adams’s term

France

• Perhaps Adams’s greatest achievement was avoiding all-out war with France

• After the United States signed the Jay Treaty with Britain, France began seizing American ships on the open seas

• Adams sent three diplomats to Paris, where French officials demanded a huge bribe before they would allow negotiations even to begin

• The diplomats returned home, and Adams published their written report in the newspapers

• Because he deleted the French officials’ names and replaced them with the letters X, Y, and Z, the incident became known as the XYZ Affair

• As a result, popular sentiment did a complete turnaround; formerly pro-French, the public became vehemently anti-French to the point that a declaration of war seemed possible

• Aware of how small the American military was, Adams avoided the war (a war Hamilton wanted) and negotiated a settlement with a contrite France although he was not able to avoid the Naval skirmishes called the Quasi-War

Alien and Sedition Acts

• The low point of Adams’s tenure was the passage and enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts

• The acts allowed the government to forcibly expel foreigners and to jail newspaper editors for “scandalous and malicious writing”

• The acts were purely political, aimed at destroying new immigrants’—especially French immigrants’—support for the Democratic-Republicans

• Worst of all, the Sedition Act, which strictly regulated antigovernment speech, was a clear violation of the First Amendment

Opposition to Alien and Sedition Acts

• Vice President Jefferson led the opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts

• Together with Madison, he drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (which were technically anonymous)

• The resolutions argued that the states had the right to judge the constitutionality of federal laws

• The resolutions went on to exercise this authority they claimed, later referred to as nullification, by declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts void

• Virginia and Kentucky, however, never prevented enforcement of the laws

• Rather, Jefferson used the laws and the resolutions as key issues in his 1800 campaign for the presidency

• Even today, states often pass resolutions similar to these to express their displeasure with the federal government.

Period 4: 1800-1848

4.1 The “Revolution of 1800”

General

• By 1800, the Federalist Party was split, clearing the way to the presidency for the Democratic-Republicans

• Two men ran for the party nomination: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr

Election Results

• Each received an equal number of votes in the Electoral College, which meant that the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives was required to choose a president from between the two

• It took 35 ballots, but Jefferson finally won

• Alexander Hamilton swallowed hard and campaigned for Jefferson, with whom he disagreed on most issues and whom he personally disliked, because he believed Burr to be “a most unfit and dangerous man.”

• Burr later proved Hamilton right by killing him.

Noteworthy Reasons

• The election was noteworthy for two reasons

• For the second time in as many elections, a president was saddled with a vice president he did not want.

• The other, more important reason the election was significant is that in America’s first transfer of power—from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans—no violence occurred, a feat practically unprecedented for the time.

Change-over

• Jefferson referred to his victory and the subsequent change-over as “the bloodless revolution.”

• The problem of the president being saddled with a vice president he did not want was remedied in 1804 with the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which allowed electors to vote for a party ticket.

The Jeffersonian Republic (1800– 1823)

Jefferson’s First Term

General

• The transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans may have been a bloodless one, but it was not a friendly one

• Adams was so upset about the election that he left the capital before Jefferson took office in order to avoid attending the inauguration ceremony

Midnight Appointments

• Before he left town, Adams made a number of midnight appointments, filling as many government positions with Federalists as he could

• Jefferson’s response was to refuse to recognize those appointments

• He then set about replacing as many Federalist appointees as he could. He dismissed some, pressured others to retire, and waited out the rest

• By his second term, the majority of public appointees were Democratic-Republicans

Marbury v. Madison

• Jefferson’s refusal to accept Adams’s midnight appointments resulted in a number of lawsuits against the government

• One, the case of Marbury v. Madison reached the Supreme Court in 1803

• William Marbury, one of Adams’s last-minute appointees, had sued Secretary of State James Madison for refusing to certify his appointment to the federal bench

• Chief Justice John Marshall was a Federalist, and his sympathies were with Marbury, but Marshall was not certain that the court could force Jefferson to accept Marbury’s appointment

• Marshall’s decision in the case established one of the most important principles of the Supreme Court: judicial review

• The court ruled that Marbury did indeed have a right to his judgeship but that the court could not enforce his right.

Judicial Review

• The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court the authority to order federal appointees (such as Madison) to deliver appointments such as William Marbury’s

• Marshall believed that this act gave too much power to the Judicial Branch at the expense of Congress and the Presidency, and thus it was unconstitutional

• In one fell swoop, Marshall had handed Jefferson the victory he wanted while simultaneously claiming a major role for the Supreme Court

Louisiana Purchase

• The major accomplishment of Jefferson’s first term was the Louisiana Purchase

• When Spain gave New Orleans to the French in 1802, the government realized that a potentially troublesome situation was developing

• The French, they knew, were more likely to take advantage of New Orleans’ strategic location at the mouth of the Mississippi

General

• Thomas Jefferson faced with a dilemma with regards to the Constitution and the power of the federal government

• as secretary of state under Washington, he had argued for a strict interpretation of the Constitution

Dilemma

• Nowhere did the Constitution authorize the president to purchase land, yet clearly Jefferson could not pass up this opportunity to double the size of the United States

• Jefferson thought about trying to get a constitutional amendment added allowing him to buy land from other countries

• Ultimately, Jefferson resolved the issue by claiming his presidential power to negotiate treaties with foreign nations

Louisiana Purchase

• His decision to purchase Louisiana without Congressional approval was not unanimously applauded

• New England Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase because they feared (correctly) that more western states would be more Democratic states, and that they would lose political power.

• They formed a group called the Essex Junto, planning to secede from the United States (and asked Aaron Burr to be their leader), but the plan never fully materialized

• Some Republicans, led by John Randolph of Virginia, criticized Jefferson for violating Republican principles. This group became known as the Quids

Lewis and Clark Expedition

• Jefferson sent explorers, among them Lewis and Clark, to investigate the western territories, including much of what was included in the Louisiana territory

• This trip included Sacajawea as the Shoshoni guide who helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with other Native American tribes on the way up the Missouri River

• All returned with favorable reports, causing many pioneers to turn their attentions westward in search of land, riches, and economic opportunities

• Those early explorers also reported back to Jefferson on the presence of British and French forts that still dotted the territory, garrisoned with foreign troops that had been (deliberately?) slow to withdraw after the regime changes of the previous half-century

Election of 1804

• In 1804, Jefferson won reelection in a landslide victory

• During the 1804 elections, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York

• Again, Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr

• When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel in which he killed Hamilton

• Afterward, Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory. He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted due to lack of evidence

Jefferson’s Second Term

• French-English dispute leads to War of 1812

• British and French blockading trade routes

• American ships and sailors impressed by British

• Tensions mount, culminating in British frigate attack on American ship in American waters

• Jefferson unable to go to war, responds with boycott and increasing military appropriations

Embargo Act of 1807

• Shut down of American import and export business

• Disastrous economic results, especially in New England

• Smuggling becomes widespread

• New England states strongly opposed

• Led to loss of Democratic Republican Congressional seats in 1808 elections

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809

• Reopened trade with most nations

• Officially banned trade with Britain and France

• Jefferson chooses not to seek third term, endorses James Madison for presidency

4.2 Madison’s Presidency and the War of 1812

Macon's Bill No. 2

• Reopened trade with both France and England

• If either country interfered with American trade, the other would be cut off

• Napoleon promised to stop interference, leading to embargo on England

• France continued to harass American ships

• British stepped up attacks on American ships

Pro-War Sentiments

• Southern and Western War Hawks saw opportunity to gain new territories

• Strong desire to gain Canada from British

• Led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun

Madison and the Declaration of War

• Madison held out as long as he could

• Finally asked Congress to declare war in 1812.

War of 1812

• Native Americans aligned with British

• Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion

• British armed Native Americans in Western territories

• American forces ill-prepared for war, fighting went badly

• British captured Washington, D.C. and set White House on fire

• Most battles fought to a stalemate

• Treaty of Ghent signed, ending war

• Battle of New Orleans, clear-cut U.S. victory

• Federalists opposed war and met in Hartford Convention

• War spurred American manufacturing, led to self-sufficiency

The Hartford Convention

• Grievances including trade laws and presidential term limits

• Federalists considered traitors, party dissolved

Madison Administration

• Promoted national growth

• Cautious extension of federal power

• Championed protective tariffs, interstate road improvements, and rechartering of National Bank (American System/Nationalist Program)

• Henry Clay lobbied aggressively for American System, often referred to as "Henry Clay's American System"

Monroe’s Presidency

Era of Good Feelings

• Only one political party, briefly leaves United States with unity

• Chief Justice John Marshall's rulings strengthens federal government

• Panic of 1819 causes economic turmoil and nearly ends good feelings

• No nationally organized political opposition results from panic

Westward Expansion

• John Quincy Adams negotiated treaties to fix U.S. borders and open new territories

• Acquisition of Florida from Spanish through Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819

• International tensions caused by revolutions in Central and South America

• Monroe Doctrine: Policy of mutual non-interference and America's right to intervene in its own hemisphere

• Monroe Doctrine is first of several doctrines that will become foreign policy

Slavery Debate

• New period of expansion results in national debate over slavery

• Missouri is the first state carved out of Louisiana Purchase and slavery debate continues until Civil War.

4.3 Political Events and Social Developments

The Election of 1824 and John Quincy Adams’s Presidency

Election of 1824

• Prior to 1824, electors chosen by state legislatures or congressional caucuses

• By 1824, majority of states allowed voters to choose presidential electors directly

• Democratic-Republican caucus chose William H. Crawford, leading to opposition and demise of caucus system

• Andrew Jackson received the greatest number of popular votes and electoral votes but no one had a majority

• Election decided in the House of Representatives, with Speaker of the House Clay supporting Adams

Corrupt Bargain

• Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State, leading to allegations of a corrupt bargain between the two

• Adams and Clay both vowed to be removed in the election of 1828

• William Crawford suffered a stroke after the initial election and was not a real contender for the House vote

Constitution

• In cases where there is no majority winner in the Electoral College, the three top electoral winners go on to House election

The Jackson Presidency and Jacksonian Democracy

• Andrew Jackson's era as president is an important period in American history

• Jackson's campaign for presidency in 1824 was vicious, with surrogates accusing opponents of corruption and misconduct

• The campaign eventually led to the formation of the present-day Democratic Party

• In 1828, Jackson won the election by a large margin and became the first president who wasn't born in Virginia or named Adams

• Jackson was seen as the epitome of a self-made man and had the interests of the West in mind

• Among his first acts as president, Jackson dismissed numerous government officials and replaced them with political supporters

• This led to criticism of cronyism and the rise of the spoils system, in which jobs were traded for political favors

• Jackson's popularity ushered in the age of Jacksonian democracy, which replaced Jeffersonian republicanism

• Jacksonian democracy characterized by universal white manhood suffrage and a strong presidency

• Jackson used his popularity to challenge Congress and the Supreme Court in a way that none of his predecessors had

• However, Jacksonian democracy is not a coherent vision of how a government should function and Jackson was not as great a thinker as Jefferson.

• Jackson's treatment of the Cherokees with the Indian Removal Act of 1830 is one of the most criticized policies by modern scholars.

• The concept of treating Native Americans as "foreign nations" was established by the British, and the US government continued this policy after gaining independence.

• Some Americans, such as Thomas Jefferson, believed that assimilation into American culture could be a solution to the "Indian Problem."

• By the time of Jackson's presidency, there were "Five Civilized Tribes" living in the South, including the Cherokee nation. They had developed a written language, converted to Christianity, and embraced agriculture.

• The problem arose when gold was discovered on Cherokee land and citizens of Georgia demanded that the Cherokees comply with the Indian Removal Act, which demanded that they resettle in Oklahoma.

• Jackson argued that moving away from white society was the best way to protect themselves from white encroachment and maintain their traditional customs.

• The Cherokees refused and brought their case to the Supreme Court, which sided with them in two cases. However, Jackson refused to comply with the Court's decision and thousands of Cherokees were forced to walk to Oklahoma in what is known as the Trail of Tears. Thousands died of sickness and starvation along the way.

• Another issue during Jackson's presidency was the doctrine of nullification, where states believed they had the right to disobey federal laws if they found them unconstitutional.

• The Tariff of 1828, also known as the Tariff of Abominations, was passed during the Adams administration but almost turned into a national crisis during Jackson's administration.

• In 1828, John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president, anonymously published "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest" arguing that states who felt the 50 percent tariff was unfairly high could nullify the law.

Economic Policies

• Distrust of big government and northeastern power brokers

• Downsizing the federal government and strengthening the presidency through the use of veto

• Opposed reform movements that called for increased government activism

• Vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS) and withdrew federal funds to deposit in state "pet" banks

• Believed the BUS protected northeastern interests at the expense of the West

• Argued that the bank was an unconstitutional monopoly, but the Supreme Court ruled against him

• Preferred "hard currency" such as gold or silver

• Specie Circular, which ended the policy of selling government land on credit, caused a money shortage and a sharp decrease in the treasury, and helped trigger the Panic of 1837

• Congress overturned the circular in the last days of Jackson's final term

Slavery

• Grew to be an ever more controversial issue during the time of Jacksonian Democracy

• As the northern abolition movement grew stronger, the South experienced several slave revolts

• More brutal disciplinary measures by slaveholders

• Nat Turner's Rebellion, a slave rebellion where Nat Turner rallied a gang that killed and mutilated 60 whites.

• In retaliation, 200 enslaved people were executed, some with no connection at all to the rebellion

• Fearful that other enslaved people would emulate Turner's exploits, southern states passed a series of restrictive laws, known as slave codes, prohibiting Black people from congregating and learning to read

• Other state laws even prevented whites from questioning the legitimacy of slavery

• After Turner's Rebellion, Virginia's House of Burgesses debated ending bondage but did not pass a law.

4.4 The Election of 1836 and the Rise of the Whigs

Democratic Party and Whig Party

• Jackson's Democratic party unable to represent all constituencies (northern abolitionists, southern plantation owners, western pioneers)

• Whig party formed as opposition to Democratic party

• By 1834, almost as many congressmen supported Whig party as Democratic party

• Whigs were a loose coalition united by opposition to Democratic party policies

• Whigs believed in government activism, especially in social issues

• Many Whigs were religious and supported temperance movement and enforcement of the Sabbath

Whig Beliefs

• Similar to Federalists in support of manufacturing, opposition to new immigrants, and Westward Expansion

Election of 1836 and Panic of 1837

• Jackson supported Democrat Martin Van Buren for vice president

• Van Buren assumed presidency during economic crisis (Panic of 1837)

• Van Buren's policy of favoring hard currency made money hard to come by, worsening the crisis

• Economic downturn lasted through Van Buren's term, making re-election unlikely

William Henry Harrison and John Tyler

• Whig William Henry Harrison became president in 1841, but died a month later

• Vice president John Tyler, a former Democrat, assumed presidency

• Tyler championed states' rights, alienating Whig leadership

• Tyler vetoed numerous Whig bills, causing his cabinet to resign in protest

• Tyler referred to as "president without a party," and his presidency lasted only one term.

Economic History (1800–1860)

Economic Developments in 19th century US

• Economic developments played important role in political events leading to Civil War and determined characteristics of different regions

• Along with social developments, economic factors laid foundation for important issues in American society for following century (abolitionism, women's suffrage, temperance)

Beginnings of a Market Economy

• Before Revolutionary War, most settlers raised crops for subsistence, not market

• People made own clothing and built own furniture and homes, cash transactions were rare

• Developments in manufacturing and transportation led to market economy development

• Market economy favors those who specialize, but can also lead to overproduction and dependence on market

• Rapid transition from subsistence economy to market economy in first decades of 19th century

War of 1812 and National Economy

• War of 1812 and events leading up to it forced US to become less dependent on imports and develop stronger national economy

Cotton Gin and Interchangeable parts

• Cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, revolutionized southern agriculture and increased demand for cotton

• Spread of cotton as chief crop intensified South's dependence on slave labor

• Other notable inventions that revolutionized agriculture include steel plow and mechanical reaper

• Whitney's second innovation was use of interchangeable parts in manufacturing, which made mass production more efficient and cost-effective.

North and Textile Industry

• Textile industry in the North was developed by advances in machine technology and U.S. embargo on British goods prior to War of 1812

• Textile mills in New England produced thread and hired local women to weave thread into cloth at home

• Power loom in 1813 allowed manufacturers to produce both thread and finished fabric in own factories quickly and efficiently

• Shortage of labor in New England led to worker-enticement programs like Lowell system

• Other industries such as clothing manufacturers, retailers, brokers, and commercial banks grew around textile industry

Transportation Industry

• Prior to 1820s, travel and shipping along east-west routes was difficult and most trade centered on north-south routes

• Construction of National Road and completion of Erie Canal in 1825 made east-west travel and trade more accessible

• Northeast established itself as center of commerce due to success of Erie Canal

• Other regions attempted to duplicate success of Erie Canal with construction of thousands of miles of canals in the Northeast and Midwest, but most failed

• Railroads developed as convenient means of transporting goods and by 1850, the Canal Era had ended.

Transportation and Communication

• Inventions of steam engine and telegraph revolutionized travel and shipping, allowing for faster and more efficient transportation and communication

• Steamships replaced sailing ships for long sea voyages and railroads replaced land travel

• The Transportation Revolution by 1855, the cost to send things across America had fallen to one-twentieth of what it had cost in 1825, and they arrived in one-fifth the time.

• Telegraph allowed for immediate long-distance communication and widespread use followed its invention almost immediately

Farming

• Mechanization revolutionized farming in the first half of the 19th century, with many machines such as mechanical plow, sower, reaper, thresher, baler, and cotton gin coming into common use

• Growth of market economy changed farming as more food went to market

• Farming in the Northeast faced difficulties due to rocky, hilly terrain and over-farming of land, leading to some farmers switching to livestock and fruits/vegetables, or leaving for manufacturing jobs

• Midwest became America's chief source of grains and farms were larger and more adaptable to new technology, with banks providing capital for modern equipment and trade routes providing access to markets.

4.5 Westward Expansion

• Louisiana Purchase removed major obstacle to U.S. western settlement

• War of 1812 removed another obstacle by depriving Native Americans of British ally

• By 1820, U.S. had settled region east of Mississippi River and was quickly expanding west

• Americans believed in God-given right to western territories, known as America's Manifest Destiny

• Some argued for annexation of Canada, Mexico, and all of Americas

Dangerous Western Settlement

• Terrain and climate could be cold and unforgiving

• Settlers from East moving into areas belonging to Native Americans and Mexicans

Texas

• Mexico declared independence from Spain in 1821, included what is now Texas and Southwest

• Mexican government established liberal land policies to entice settlers

• Tens of thousands of Americans flooded the region, rarely becoming Mexican citizens

• Ignored Mexican law, including prohibition of slavery

• Mexican attempts to regain control led to rebellion and declaration of independence

• Texas was independent country called Republic of Texas

• Existence of slavery guaranteed Congressional battle over statehood, not admitted to Union until 1845

Oregon Territory

• Thousands of settlers traveled to Willamette Valley via the Oregon Trail in early 1840s

• Americans not first in area, large Native American population and British claiming for Canada

• Russians also staked claim, both British and Americans saw them as a threat

• Polk administration settled territorial dispute by signing treaty with England

• Late 1840s, destination shifted to California due to Gold Rush

• Discovery of gold in California mountains attracted over 100,000 people in 2 years

• Most did not strike it rich, but settled area due to hospitable agriculture and access to Pacific Ocean for trade centers like San Francisco.

Economic Reasons for Regional Differences

• Three different sections of the country- North, South, and West (including Midwest) developed in different directions

• North becoming industrialized, commercial center

• South remained agrarian, chief crops- tobacco and cotton, constantly looking west for more land

• Western economic interests varied but were largely rooted in commercial farming, fur trapping, and real-estate speculation

North

• Technological advances in communications, transportation, industry, and banking helped it become the nation's commercial center

• Farming played less of a role in northeastern economy than elsewhere in the country

• Legal slavery became increasingly uncommon in this region throughout the early 1800s

South

• Remained almost entirely agrarian

• Chief crops- tobacco and cotton required vast acreage

• Anxious to protect slavery, which the large landholders depended on, Southerners also looked for new slave territories to include in the Union

• To strengthen their position in Congress and protect slavery from northern legislators

West

• Westerners generally distrusted the North, which they regarded as the home of powerful banks that could take their land away

• They had little more use for the South, whose rigidly hierarchical society was at odds with the egalitarianism of the West

• Most Westerners wanted to avoid involvement in the slavery issue, which they regarded as irrelevant to their lives

• Ironically, western expansion was the core of the most important conflicts leading up to the Civil War.

4.6 Social History, 1800-1860

• Growth of American economy in early 19th century brought about numerous social changes

• Cotton gin and Industrial Revolution in England altered southern agriculture and increased reliance on slave labor

• Development of commerce led to larger middle class, especially in North but also in southern and midwestern cities

• Industrialization resulted in bigger cities with large (and often impoverished) migrant and immigrant neighborhoods

• Westward migration created new frontier culture as pioneers dealt with uniqueness of West's landscape and climate

• Each of these circumstances influenced people's attitudes and ambitions and set the scene for social and political events of the era

The North and American Cities

• North became the nation's industrial and commercial center during the first half of the 19th century

• Home to many of the nation's major cities

• Cities faced numerous problems, lack of powerful urban governments to oversee rapid expansion

• Modern waste disposal, plumbing, sewers, and incineration not yet developed, cities could be toxic environments

• Proximity in which people lived and worked, coupled with sanitation problems, made epidemics likely

• Cities meant jobs, many northern farmers moved to cities to work in new factories

• Cities offered more opportunities for social advancement

• Public schooling, labor unions, clubs and associations for middle and upper class to exert influence on government and society

• Cities provided a wide variety of leisure-time options, such as theater and sports

• Great disparity in distribution of wealth in northern cities, elite few controlled most of the personal wealth and led lives of power and comfort

• Beneath them was the middle class, made up of tradesmen, brokers, and other professionals

• Middle class often rose from the working class, who often worked in factories or at low-paying crafts, women often worked at home or as domestic servants

• Cult of domesticity, supported by popular magazines and novels that glorified home life

• Middle class also made up most of the market for luxury goods such as housewares and fine furniture

• Working-class families lived just above poverty level, any calamity could plunge them into debt

• Those in poverty were mostly recent immigrants, numbers swelled in the 1840s and 1850s

• Immigrants faced discrimination and prejudice, often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions

• Westward migration brought new set of social problems, including issues of land ownership, displacement of Native Americans, and question of slavery.

• The majority of Southerners lived in rural areas in near isolation in the South.

• Family and church played a dominant role in social life, as there were few people around to support organized cultural and leisure events.

• The South had few centers of commerce and limited infrastructure compared to the North.

• The wealthiest Southern citizens formed an aristocracy of plantation owners who dominated southern society politically, socially, and economically.

• Plantation owners grew cotton and tobacco, and many convinced themselves that the slave system benefited all of its participants, including the enslaved people.

• Enslaved people lived in a state of subsistence poverty, often overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, and worked long hours at difficult and tedious labor.

• Enslaved people developed a unique culture that blended aspects of their African roots with elements of Christianity, and developed subtle methods of resistance to maintain their dignity.

• The majority of Southerners farmed small plots of land and were relatively poor, but they were generally self-sufficient.

The West and Frontier Living

• The West and Frontier Living in the 19th century saw the constant changing of the frontier's boundaries.

• In 1800, the frontier lay east of the Mississippi River, but by 1820, nearly all of this eastern territory had attained statehood and the frontier region consisted of much of the Louisiana Purchase.

• Settlers also moved to Texas and then to a part of Mexico in the late 1820s and 1830s and by the early 1840s, the frontier had expanded to include the Pacific Northwest.

• The US government actively encouraged settlers to move west by giving away or selling large tracts of land to war veterans and loaned money at reduced rates to civilians.

• Settlers in the Ohio Valley and points west found the area was hospitable to grain production and dairy farming due to the flat land and new farm implements.

• Transportation advances also made shipping produce easier and more profitable, leading to the Midwest becoming known as "the nation’s breadbasket."

• Fur trading was another common commercial enterprise on the frontiers, with fur traders often being the first pioneers in a region.

• Frontier life was rugged and settlers struggled against the climate, elements, and Native Americans.

• The frontier offered opportunities for wealth, freedom, and social advancement, making it a symbol of freedom and equality to many Americans.

• The 19th century saw the beginnings of true social reform in the United States, with many social reform movements growing out of the Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival.

• Women were particularly active in reform groups, particularly those of the middle and upper classes.

• The western and central regions of New York State were known as the Burned-over District for the spiritual fervor in the area.

Mormonism, Abolitionists

• Joseph Smith formed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in 1830.

• Smith's preaching, particularly his acceptance of polygamy, drew strong opposition in the East and Midwest, culminating in his death by a mob while imprisoned in Illinois.

• The Mormons, realizing they would never be allowed to practice their faith in the East, made the long, difficult trek to the Salt Lake Valley led by Brigham Young.

• There, they settled and transformed the area from desert into farmland through extensive irrigation.

• The Mormons' success was largely attributable to the settlers' strong sense of community.

• The Second Great Awakening was only one source of the antebellum reform movements.

• By the 1820s and 1830s, most of the Founding Fathers were dead, but they left a legacy of freedom and equality, expressed in part in the Declaration of Independence as well as the Preamble to the Constitution.

• In the 1830s, "We, the People" still meant white males.

• Many women were active in the abolitionist movement, and it was their exclusion from participation at a worldwide antislavery convention held in London in 1840 that convinced women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott to hold the first women's rights convention in 1848 in Seneca Falls in upstate New York.

• Horace Mann was instrumental in pushing for public education and education reform in general. He lengthened the school year, established the first "normal school" for teacher training, and used the first standardized books in education.

• Before the 1830s, few whites fought aggressively for the liberation of the enslaved people.

• The Quakers believed slavery to be morally wrong and argued for its end.

• Most other antislavery whites sought gradual abolition, coupled with colonization, a movement to return Black people to Africa.

• The religious and moral fervor that accompanied the Second Great Awakening, however, persuaded more and more whites, particularly Northerners, that slavery was a great evil.

• White abolitionists divided into two groups: Moderates wanted emancipation to take place slowly and with the cooperation of slave owners, while immediatists wanted emancipation at once.

• Abolitionism is an important topic on every AP U.S. History Exam.

• But it is worth noting that, right up to the Civil War, abolitionists were widely considered extremists.

• Far and away the leading reform movement of the time was the temperance movement.

• Nearly all abolitionists believed in temperance; few supporters of temperance were abolitionists.

• The abolition movement succeeded, slavery is now illegal, but the success of the temperance movement was short-lived (Prohibition lasted only from 1920 to 1933).

Period 5: 1844-1877

5.1 Political and Judicial activity before the war

1844 U.S. Election

• Candidates: James Polk (Democrat) vs. Henry Clay (Whig)

Party Platforms

• Whigs:

  • Internal Improvements

    • Bridges

    • Harbors

    • Canals

  • Vision: Civilized lands with bustling towns and factories (e.g. New England)

• Democrats:

  • Expansionists

  • Borders pushed outward

  • Private ownership of newly added land (e.g. isolated plantations in the South)

  • No government involvement in newly added land

Election Results

• Close election

• Polk wins

The Polk Presidency

Goals

• Restore government funds in Treasury (vs. pet banks under Jackson)

• Reduce tariffs

• Accomplished by end of 1846

Texas and Oregon

• Proposed annexation by President Tyler (last days of administration)

• Northern congressmen alarmed (potential 5 slave states below Missouri Compromise line)

• Demanded annexation of entire Oregon Country

• "54°40´ or Fight" demands, but Polk recognizes possibility of two territorial wars

• Conceded on demands for expansion into Canada

• Negotiated reasonable American-Canadian border

• Oregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846

  • Acquired peaceful ownership of Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana

  • Established current northern border of the region

Mexican-American War

• Efforts to claim Southwest from Mexico (failed attempt to buy territory)

• Challenged Mexican authorities on Texas border

• Mexican attack on American troops

• Used border attack to argue for declaration of war

• Declared war by Congress in 1846

• Whigs (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk's claim of Mexican first fire

• War began in 1846

Mexican-American War & Public Opinion

• Northerners: feared new states in West would be slave states, thus tipping balance in favor of proslavery forces

• Opponents: believed war was provoked by slaveholders, resulting in slave owners having control over government

• Referenced as "Slave Power" by suspicious Northerners

• Gag rule in 1836 raised suspicions of Slave Power

• Wilmot Proviso: Congressional bill to prohibit extension of slavery in territories gained from Mexico

  • House vote fell along sectional lines: Northern in favor, Southern opposed

  • Result in Free-Soil Party: regional, single-issue party opposed to slavery expansion (competition with slave labor)

• Mexican War: successful for American forces, resulted in Mexican Cession (Southwest land) for $15 million

• Gadsden Purchase ($10 million): southern regions of modern Arizona and New Mexico for transcontinental railroad

Slavery Expansion & Debates

• Addition of new territory increased nation's potential wealth, but posed problems regarding slavery status

• East of Mississippi: evenly divided between lands suited for plantation agriculture (slavery) and those not

• West of Mississippi: not suitable for traditional plantation crops

• Southerners: saw future where slavery was confined to southeast quarter and outvoted by free-soil advocates

• Tried to open up more areas to slavery through popular sovereignty

  • Territories decide by vote whether to allow slavery within borders.

5.2 The Compromise of 1850

• Background

  • Sectional strife over new territories started as the ink was drying on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

  • During the Gold Rush, settlers had flooded into California and it wanted statehood with a constitution prohibiting slavery, opposed by South

  • Debate grew hostile leading to discussion of secession among southern legislators

• Major Players

  • Henry Clay, Whig Senator from Kentucky

    • Drafted and proposed the Compromise of 1850

    • Clarified the final boundaries of Texas

    • Proposed banning slavery in the entire Mexican Cession and wanted stringent Fugitive Slave Act

  • John Calhoun, Democrat Senator from South Carolina

    • Defender of slavery and opposed the Compromise

    • Advocate for states’ rights and secession, popular sovereignty for Mexican Cession territories

  • Daniel Webster, Whig Senator from Massachusetts

    • Supported the Compromise to preserve the Union and avert Civil War

    • Characterized himself "as an American" in the Seventh of March speech

    • Risked offending abolitionist voter base by accepting the Compromise

  • Stephen Douglas, Democrat

    • Worked with Henry Clay to hammer out a workable solution, the Compromise of 1850

• The Compromise of 1850

  • Defeated in Congress when presented as a complete package

  • Douglas broke the package into separate bills and managed to get majority support for each

  • Admitted California as a free state and stronger fugitive slave law enacted

  • Created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, left status of slavery up to each territory to decide

  • Abolished slave trade, not slavery itself, in Washington, D.C.

• Issues with the Compromise

  • Definition of popular sovereignty was vague and different interpretations by Northerners and Southerners

  • Fugitive slave law made it easier to retrieve escaped enslaved people, but required cooperation from citizens of free states and seen as immoral

• Increase in Antislavery Sentiments

  • Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852

    • Sentimental novel depicting plantation life based on information from abolitionist friends

    • Sold over a million copies and adapted into popular plays that toured America and Europe

    • Powerful piece of propaganda awakening antislavery sentiment in millions who had never thought about the issue before

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”

• The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enacted in 1854 to establish civil authority and secure land in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, where no civil authority existed.

• The act was promoted by Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas to bring money and jobs to his home state through the termination of the transcontinental railway in Illinois.

• The act was passed despite objections from antislavery Whigs and Democrats, leading to the weakening of the Fugitive Slave Act through personal liberty laws in northern states.

• The act drove the final stake into the heart of the Whig Party and led to the formation of the Republican Party, which aimed to keep slavery out of the territories and appeal to a wider constituency through a range of issues.

• The American party (also known as the Know-Nothings) was formed around the issue of nativism, but the party self-destructed over disagreement about slavery.

• The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to violence in the territories, as abolitionists and proslavery groups rushed in and both antislavery and proslavery constitutions were sent to Washington.

• Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" or "Bloody Kansas" due to the conflict between the two sides, which resulted in the deaths of over 200 people.

• The events in Kansas further polarized the nation, leading to the election of James Buchanan as the 1856 Democratic candidate. Buchanan won the election, carrying the South, while the Republicans carried the North.

Buchanan, Dred Scott, and the Election of 1860

• James Buchanan was US president from 1857-1861 and worked to maintain the status quo by enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act and opposing abolitionist activism.

• Dred Scott v. Sandford was a case heard by the Supreme Court two days after Buchanan took office, where Scott, a former slave, sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and that Congress couldn't regulate slavery in the territories.

• The Dred Scott decision was a major victory for Southerners and a turning point in the decade of crisis, it was vehemently denounced in the North as further proof of a Slave Power.

• The 1858 Illinois Senate race between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas was nationally watched, with Lincoln delivering his "House Divided" speech and Douglas damaging his political career with his ambiguous stance on popular sovereignty.

• John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 and his subsequent execution sparked northern abolitionist support.

• The 1860 Democratic convention split between Northern Democrats supporting Douglas and Southerners supporting Breckinridge.

• The election of 1860 showed the nation was on the brink of fracture, with Lincoln and Douglas contesting the North, and Breckinridge representing the South.

5.3 The Civil War and Reconstruction (1860-1877)

Civil War Era

• Background

  • Slavery was the central issue, but not the only or explicitly stated reason for the Civil War

  • Four Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) were slave states that fought for the Union

  • Northerners fought to preserve the Union, while Southerners fought for states’ rights

  • Lincoln's views on slavery evolved

  • As late as 1862, Lincoln's primary goal was to save the Union, not necessarily abolish slavery

Battles

• Battle of Antietam

  • First battle fought in the East where the Union wasn't completely defeated

  • Union claimed victory and showed Britain and France that they weren't a lost cause

  • Gave Lincoln platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation

• Battle of Gettysburg

  • Most northern point the Confederacy had reached at the time

  • Lee's troops suffered massive casualties and were forced to retreat

  • Boosted confidence for the Union

Gettysburg Address

• Delivered four months after Battle of Gettysburg

• Redefined the War as a struggle for human equality, not just preservation of Union

Influence of Political, Economic, and Social Factors

• The Civil War impacted not only the battlefields, but also the political, economic, and social realms

• Political and diplomatic consequences of battles like Antietam and Gettysburg

• Political, social, and economic conditions influenced the outcome of the war

The Civil War and the Confederacy

Central Control Under the Confederacy

• Confederate government brought southern states under greater central control

• Jefferson Davis took control of southern economy and imposed taxes

• Davis took control of transportation and created large bureaucracy to oversee economic developments

• Declared martial law and suspended habeas corpus to maintain control

• Lincoln was using similar steps in the North, causing chafing in the Confederacy

Economic Modernization and Challenges

• Davis tried to modernize the southern economy, but lagged behind in industrialization

• Rapid economic growth led to rapid inflation, causing poverty in the South

• Confederacy imposed conscription, causing further poverty and class conflict

• Wealthy were allowed to hire surrogates and were exempt from military service, causing increased tensions

Towards the End of the War

• Class tensions led to widespread desertions from the Confederate Army

• Southerners in small towns ignored the government and tried to carry on as if there was no war

• Many resisted when asked to support passing troops

The Civil War and the Union

I. Economic Impacts A. Northern economy

• Boosted by demand for war-related goods (uniforms, weapons)

• Loss of southern markets initially harmed economy

• War economy brought boom period

• Entrepreneurs became wealthy, some through war profiteering

• Corruption widespread, prompted congressional investigation B. Southern economy

• Accelerated inflation rate (over 300%)

II. Workers and Unions A. Workers concerned about job security, formed unions B. Businesses opposed unions, blacklisted members, broke strikes C. Republican Party supported business, opposed to regulation

III. Government Powers A. Increase in central government power B. Lincoln's actions

• Economic development programs without congressional approval

• Government loans and grants to businesses, raised tariffs

• Suspended writ of habeas corpus in border states

• Printed national currency C. Treasury Secretary: Salmon P. Chase

• Issued greenbacks, precursor to modern currency

Salmon P. Chase

• Initially, neither the Union nor the Confederacy declared the Civil War to be about slavery

• The Constitution protected slavery where it already existed, so many opponents were against extending slavery into new territories

• Lincoln argued for gradual emancipation, compensation to slaveholders, and colonization of freed enslaved people

• Radical Republicans in Congress wanted immediate emancipation and introduced confiscation acts in 1861 and 1862

• The second confiscation act allowed the government to liberate all enslaved people, but Lincoln refused to enforce it

• Lincoln's idea of gradual emancipation was based on a law in Pennsylvania passed in 1780

• Enslaved people supported the Southern war effort by growing crops and cooking meals, leading to their liberation becoming a side effect of Union victory

• Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam

• The Emancipation Proclamation stated that the government would liberate all slaves in states "in rebellion" on January 1, 1863

• It did not free slaves in border states or those already under Union control, and allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union without giving up slavery

• The Proclamation declared the Civil War as a war against slavery and changed its purpose

• Lincoln supported complete emancipation and the Thirteenth Amendment before his reelection campaign

• After his reelection, he tried to negotiate a settlement with Southern leaders for reentry into the Union and voting on the Thirteenth Amendment.

The Election of 1864 and the End of the Civil War

• General Opinion

  • North and South both favored end of the war

  • George McClellan lost due to opposing majority of Democrats

• Southern Population

  • Less than 1% owned over 100 enslaved people

  • Non-slaveholding farmers resented Confederacy and war

• Northern Opinion

  • War Democrats: war necessary to preserve Union

  • Copperheads: accused Lincoln of national social revolution

  • Most violent opposition in New York City

  • Draft riots in 1863

  • Irish immigrants resentful of being drafted

  • Feared competition with former slaves for low-paying jobs

• War Progress

  • Summer 1864 victories helped Lincoln's reelection

  • Union victory virtually assured by early spring 1865

  • Established Freedman's Bureau for newly liberated Black people

  • First federal, social welfare program in U.S. history

• End of War

  • Confederate leaders surrendered in April 1865

  • John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln five days later

  • Devastating consequences for reunited nation

• War Cost

  • Over 3 million men fought

  • Over 500,000 died

  • As many seriously wounded

  • Both governments ran up huge debts

  • South ravaged by Union soldiers

  • Sherman's March from Atlanta to sea in 1864

  • Union Army burned everything in its wake

  • Foreshadowed wide-scale warfare of 20th century

• Political Impact

  • War permanently expanded role of government

  • Government grew rapidly to manage economy and war

Reconstruction

• Reconstruction refers to the period of 1865-1877 and the process of readmitting southern states, rebuilding physical damage, and integrating newly freed Blacks into society

• Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan was a plan to allow southern states back into the Union after 10% of voters took an oath of allegiance and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment, but was seen as too lenient by Republicans

• The Wade-Davis Bill provided for military rule in former Confederate states and required 50% of the electorate to swear an oath of allegiance, but was pocket vetoed by Lincoln and later died

• Lincoln's and the Wade-Davis Bill did not make provisions for Black suffrage

• With Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency and developed the Reconstruction Plan which required a loyalty oath but barred many former Confederate elite from taking it

• Johnson's Reconstruction Plan was met with resistance from Congress, leading to his impeachment trial

• Johnson's impeachment trial, the first of a U.S. President, was a result of political conflicts between Johnson and the Radical Republicans over Reconstruction policies.

The Failure of Reconstruction

General Overview:

• Reconstruction had successes and failures

• New state constitutions allowed all men to vote, elected government positions, public schools, and industrial development

• Failure was due to high tax rates, propaganda war, corruption, and political scandals

Successes:

• All southern men could vote

• Elected government positions replaced appointed positions

• Public schools and social institutions created

• Industrial and rail development stimulated

• Black people serving in southern governments

Failures:

• High tax rates and public opposition

• Propaganda war against Reconstruction

• Corruption of Northerners and Southerners

• Political scandals during Grant's administration

Political Scandals during Grant's Administration:

• Black Friday, 1869

• Credit Mobilier scandal, 1872

• New York Custom House ring, 1872

• Star Route frauds, 1872-1876

• Sanborn incident, 1874

• Pratt & Boyd scandal, 1875

• Whiskey Ring, 1875

• Delano affair, 1875

• Trading post scandal, 1876

• Alexander Cattell & Co. scandal, 1876

• Safe burglary, 1876

• Diverted public's attention from postwar conditions in the South

• Civil War officially ended but a war of intimidation began by insurgent groups (Ku Klux Klan, White League)

• Attorney General Amos Akerman declared the actions of these groups amount to war

• Federal troops were sent in to oppose the Klan under the Enforcement Acts

• Reconstruction did little to alter the South's power structure or redistribute wealth to freedmen

• Federal government signaled early on it would ease up restrictions and President Grant enforced the law loosely

• Supreme Court restricted the scope of the 14th and 15th Amendments, allowing for voting restrictions for Black people

• President Grant's administration was corrupt and tarnished Reconstruction

• 1872 election, Liberal Republicans abandoned coalition supporting Reconstruction due to corruption

• Grant moved closer to conciliation and several acts pardoned rebels

• Southern Democrats regained control by 1876 and called themselves Redeemers, intending to reverse Republican policies

• 1876 election was contested, Samuel J. Tilden won popular vote but needed electoral vote

• Compromise of 1877 was reached to resolve the election, Hayes won and ended military reconstruction, federal troops pulled out of Southern states

• Military reconstruction ended, life for Black people became worse and took nearly 100 years for the federal government to fulfill the ideal of equality expressed in the Declaration of Independence.

Southern Blacks During and After Reconstruction

• End of the Civil War

  • Ambiguous state of freedom

  • Most stayed on plantations as sharecroppers

  • Some searched for separated family members

  • Freedman’s Bureau assistance

    • Jobs and housing

    • Money and food for those in need

    • Schools established, including Fisk University and Howard University

    • Terribly underfunded with little impact once military reconstruction ended

• Lack of Redistributed Land

  • Freedman’s Bureau attempted to establish labor contracting system

  • Failed, Blacks preferred sharecropping

    • Traded portion of crop for right to work someone else’s land

    • System worked at first, but landowners eventually abused it

    • Widespread at end of Reconstruction

    • No court would fairly try cases of sharecroppers vs. landowners

    • Sharecropping existed until mid-20th century, included more whites than Blacks

• Progressive States

  • Mississippi had large Black population and was most progressive

    • Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce became first Black senators in 1870 and 1875

  • Robert Smalls founded Republican Party of South Carolina and served in U.S. House of Representatives in the 1880s

• Key Vocabulary

  • Freedman’s Bureau

  • Sharecropping

  • Hiram Revels

  • Blanche K. Bruce

  • Robert Smalls