Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, & retrieval of information

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

A measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material again

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time 

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel processing

Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously 

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

Briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent & limitless archive of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, & experiences 

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information & (2) information retrieved from long-term memory

Central executive

A memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop & the visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological loop

A memory component that briefly holds auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance & location in space

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning & memory

Encoding Memories

Explicit memory

Retention of facts & experiences that we can consciously know & “declare” (also called declarative memory)

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention & conscious effort

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, & frequency, & of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, & word meanings

Implicit memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds & words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds 

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically 

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery & organizational devices

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice 

Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (also known as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning)

Shallow processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Storing Memories

Semantic memory

Explicit memory of facts & general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts & events - for storage

Memory consolidation

The neural storage of a long-term memory

Retrieving Memories

Prospective memory

The ability to remember to do something in the future

Retrospective memory

The ability to retrieve memories from our past

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that cues & contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect), & the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect)

Interleaving

A retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

Forgetting & Other Memory Challenges

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to remember information from one’s past

Proactive interference

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, & memories

Reconsolidation

A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered between being stored again

Misinformation effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

Source amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source); source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

Deja vu

That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience